Introduction to nanotechnology

The Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia 
Российский государственный педагогический университет 
им. А. И. Герцена 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Khinich I. I., Kononov A. A., Kolobov A. V. 
Хинич И. И., Кононов А. А., Колобов А. В. 
 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY 
ВВЕДЕНИЕ В НАНОТЕХНОЛОГИИ 
 
Tutorial 
Учебное пособие 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
St. Petersburg 
Herzen University Publishing 
2023 
 

Печатается по решению 
редакционно-издательского совета 
РГПУ им. А. И. Герцена 
УДК 53.08 
ББК 22.353 
    Х47 
 
 
 
Рецензенты: 
М. А. Зеликман, доктор физико-математических наук, профессор, 
Санкт-Петербургский политехнический университет Петра Великого 
П. И. Лазаренко, кандидат технических наук, доцент, 
Национальный исследовательский университет «МИЭТ» 
 
Х47     Хинич И. И. Введение в нанотехнологии : учебное пособие /
И. И. Хинич, А. А. Кононов, А. В. Колобов. — Санкт-Петербург : Издво РГПУ им. А. И. Герцена, 2023. — 112 с. 
ISBN 978-5-8064-3338-2 
Учебное пособие является авторским переводом курса лекций по основам 
нанотехнологий, читаемого в институте физики РГПУ им. А. И. Герцена 
(направление «Физика», профиль «Физика конденсированного состояния 
вещества» и направление «Педагогическое образование», профиль «Физическое 
образование»). В нем на доступном уровне рассматриваются особенности мира 
нанообъектов, 
возможности 
современной 
диагностической 
аппаратуры 
нанотехнологий, принципы микро- и наноэлектроники. 
Пособие ставит целью помочь в понимании важных вопросов современной 
физики как российским студентам, изучающим английский язык, так 
и иностранным студентам, владеющим английскимй языком на более высоком 
уровне, чем русским. Оно может быть полезно широкому кругу студентов 
и преподавателей, знакомящихся с принципами нанонауки. 
УДК 53.08 
ББК 22.353 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ISBN 978-5-8064-3338-2 
 И. И. Хинич, А. А. Кононов, А. В. Колобов, 2023
Изд-во РГПУ им. А. И. Герцена, 2023 
С. В. Лебединский, дизайн обложки, 2023 
 

УДК 53.08 
ББК 22.353 
Published by decision
of the editorial and publishing council
Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia 
Reviewers: 
M. A. Zelikman, Grand PhD in Physics and Mathematics, Professor, 
St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Peter the Great 
P. I. Lazarenko, PhD in Engineering sciences, Associate Professor, 
National Research University of Electronic Technology MIET 
   Khinich I. I. Introduction to nanotechnology : tutorial / I. I. Khinich,
A. A. Kononov, A. V. Kolobov. — Saint-Petersburg : Herzen University
Publishing, 2023. — 112 p. 
ISBN 978-5-8064-3338-2 
The textbook is the translation of the course of lectures on the basics of 
nanotechnology, the author has read for students of the training programmes “Physics. 
Condensed matter Physics” and “Pedagogical education. Physical Education” at the 
Institute of Physics of the Herzen State Pedagogical University. It examines the features 
of nano-size objects, the research potential of contemporary diagnostic equipment of 
nanotechnology, the principles of micro- and nanoelectronics. 
The book aims to help both Russian and foreign students who speak English at a 
higher level than Russian in understanding important issues of modern physics. The 
book can be useful to a wide range of students and teachers who want to get acquainted 
with the principles of nanoscience. 
УДК 53.08 
ББК 22.353 
ISBN 978-5-8064-3338-2 
 I. I. Khinich, A. A. Kononov, A. V. Kolobov, 2023
 Herzen University Publishing, 2023 
S. V. Lebedinskii, сover design, 2023 

Preface 
The need to familiarize students of pedagogical universities with the latest 
advances in nanotechnology by teaching an appropriate course as part of their 
training program is conditioned by several reasons. Firstly, in the last decades, the 
development of nanoscience and high technologies have convincingly 
demonstrated the heuristic possibilities that result from studying specific 
phenomena and properties of materials at the nanoscale, in which the sizes of 
objects are commensurate with the sizes of atoms and molecules. One of the most 
direct effects of reducing the size of materials to the nanometer range is the 
appearance of size effects, that is a strong dependence of any material 
characteristics on the size of the structure at the nanoscale, capable of radically 
changing various properties of materials, self-assembly and self-ordering of atoms 
and molecules at nanometer distances. Knowledge of these features allows 
achieving significant results when creating a variety of products. 
Secondly, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, microelectronics started 
to use nanoscale building blocks thus becoming a priority field of nanoscience, 
which embraces the most ambitious and complex challenges. 
Thirdly, familiarization of students with state-of-art diagnostic equipment 
of nanotechnology, including scanning probe and electron microscopy, is an 
important stage in the formation of their professional competencies as they are 
trained to educate younger generation by disseminating usable knowledge. 
This textbook is based on the author’s a course of lectures on the basics of 
nanotechnology, that he has read for students of the Institute of Physics at the 
Herzen State Pedagogical University over the past few years. The theoretical 
material of the lectures is accompanied by assignments for laboratory work, when 
students conduct research into materials using scanning probe and electron 
microscopes. 
The book is intended for parallel use in the two languages — Russian and 
English, which seems productive, as, on the one hand, it can allow Russian 
students to acquire English-language terminology in the field of physics, as well 
4

as improve their reading skills of specialized literature; on the other hand, it will 
allow foreign students who speak English better than Russian to fully understand 
the content, and possibly improve their Russian language. 
The textbook comprises eight parts. Part 1 puts the unique properties of 
nano-size objects into perspective, explains classical and quantum dimensional 
effects. Part 2 describes carbon nanostructures, namely, fullerene molecules, 
fullerene-based structures, nanotubes, and the most promising carbon 
nanomaterial — graphene that have found a wide practical application. 
Part 3 introduces students to the principle of scanning probe microscope 
operation. Part 4 describes the technique of scanning probe microscopy, which 
allows studying the distribution of physical characteristics over the sample surface 
with nanoscale resolution. Part 5 discusses the principle of transmission electron 
microscope operation and its research potential. 
Part 6 introduces students to the scanning electron microscope technique 
and explains how the detectors of secondary and backscattered electrons, 
produced as a result of its interaction inside the sample, work. Part 7 describes the 
procedure of local elemental microanalysis that is carried out using an energy 
dispersion spectrometer embedded in a scanning electron microscope. Part 8 is 
devoted to the basics of micro- and nanoelectronics, it examines in detail the main 
stages of planar chip manufacturing technology. 
5

CONTENTS 
1. NANOTECHNOLOGIES AND NANOMATERIALS.................................... 7
2. NANOCARBON STRUCTURES .................................................................. 15
3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE SCANNING PROBE
MICROSCOPE ................................................................................................... 31 
4. VARIOUS SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY TECHNIQUES .............. 46
5. TRANSMISSION ELECTRONIC MICROSCOPY ...................................... 56
6. SCANNING ELECTRONIC MICROSCOPY ............................................... 65
7. ELECTRONIC PROBE X-RAY MICROANALYSIS .................................. 84
8. FUNDAMENTALS OF MICRO- AND NANOELECTRONICS ................. 97
6

1. NANOTECHNOLOGIES AND NANOMATERIALS
Nanotechnology is a complex word comprising 2 components — 
technology and the nano. The nano means ten to the ninth power (10-9). The 
technology of any activity is a way of solving a specific task, a sequence of actions 
directed towards its implementation. A case in point could be manufacturing 
technology of a specific product. Today nanotechnology as well as biotechnology 
and information technology are one of the most modern, rapidly developing 
technologies. Moreover, experts believe that a nanotechnological revolution, 
which happened at the turn of the 21st century, can be compared in terms of 
importance with the computer revolution of the second half of the 20th century. 
Now nanotechnology is evolving at an unprecedented pace, enormous material 
and intellectual resources are invested in it all over the world. Nanotechnology 
achievements are growing rapidly, and in the future, they promise fantastic 
opportunities. 
Nanotechnology involves the understanding and control of matter at the 
nanometer-scale. The so-called nanoscale deals with dimensions between 
approximately 1 and 100 nanometers. The term “nanotechnology” was introduced 
in 1974 by the Japanese physicist Norio Taniguchi, who suggested using it to 
describe the work with objects less than one micron in size. Today, another 
classification of objects by their size has been adopted (Fig. 1.1). 
Figure 1.1. Size scale with examples of typical objects 
The figure shows three size ranges. At the macro-range, only the lower limit 
is indicated — 0.1 mm, it covers all objects around us, visible to the human eye, 
7

except for the smallest ones. The upper limit of the macrorange is not marked in 
the figure; with increasing distances, it passes into other ranges, up to cosmic 
ones. Micro and nano ranges cover 3 orders of magnitude. The microrange 
corresponds to the size interval from 0.1 mm to 0.1 μm and includes all 
microorganisms, living cells and such small objects as a human hair. The upper 
limit of the nanoscale is 0.1 μm or 100 nm, and its lower limit of 0.1 nm 
corresponds to the diameter of the smallest atom, the atom of hydrogen. Thus, this 
range covers all atoms, all molecules up to such complex ones as the DNA 
molecule, and a great number of artificial molecules. This question will be 
discussed below. 
As you know, an atom, even the smallest one, is not the smallest particle in 
nature, it consists of even smaller objects, so the nanoscale is not the lowestdimensional scale. It is followed by the peak range from 0.1 nm to 0.1 pm and the 
femto range from 0.1 pm to 0.1 fm (the fractional femto prefix corresponds to 
10–15). 
The laws of physics are equally true for all size ranges. But are there any 
fundamental differences between these ranges? It turns out that the differences 
between the nano-range and the other two are much more significant than the 
differences between the micro- and macro-ranges. For example, the 
manufacturing of objects or their parts in the last two ranges does not 
fundamentally differ. Though different tools are used, but the principles of their 
work are the same. For example, the vice is replaced by micromanipulators or 
micro-tweezers. Moving in both ranges can be done with the help of motors, 
adding gearboxes to them if necessary. At the same time, it is impossible to 
imagine the mechanical nanotweezers with which you can hold a molecule. So, 
to work in the nanoscale it is necessary to look for fundamentally different ways 
of fixing objects and their movements, which will be considered below. 
Control of objects and their observation in micro- and macro-ranges are 
mainly realized by optical methods in the visible range, while observations of 
micro-objects are carried out not directly with the eye, but with the help of an 
 
8

optical microscope, for example. The wavelengths of visible light are shown in 
Fig. 1.1, they exceed the boundaries of nanoobjects, and the latter cannot be 
observed by optical methods. These limitations are due to diffraction effects, that 
cause the minimum half wavelength resolution, which is 200 nm. Thus, to observe 
nano-objects, other methods should be used, which will also be discussed below. 
In objects with macroscopic dimensions, the basic physical and chemical 
properties do not depend on the size; for nanoobjects, these properties can vary 
greatly. These nanoscale effects arise for several reasons. One of them is the 
increasing role of surface and surface forces. The structure and properties of 
surface atoms and molecules, as is known from the course of general physics, 
differ from the properties of atoms and molecules in volume. 
To estimate the fraction of surface particles, depending on the size of 
a nanoobject, consider it in the form of a sphere consisting of silver atoms. We 
will assume that 3 outer layers (which is quite a lot) have surface properties, the 
interatomic distance for Ag atoms is 0.3 nm. Let us first set the diameter of the 
object to be 10 nm. Then the fraction of surface particles is defined as the ratio of 
the volume of a spherical layer 0.9 nm thick to the total volume of the sphere 
(Fig. 1.2). 
 
Figure 1.2. Calculating the fraction of surface molecules 
In turn, the volume of the spherical layer is calculated as the difference 
between the total volume of the sphere and the volume of the inner sphere surface: 
 
9

3
3
3
3
3







 
π 10
π 8,2
10
8,2
6
6
44,9%
π 10
10
6
For a sphere with a diameter of 20 nm, similar calculations give 24.6%, 
40 nm give 12.9%, 100 nm give 5.3%. Thus, at the edge of the nanoscale, the 
fraction of surface atoms is already insignificant. There are several examples of 
the manifestation of the considered effect. As you know, silver in the line of 
activity in Mendeleev’s periodic system is after hydrogen. Therefore, it does not 
interact with hydrochloric acid, however, silver nanoparticles interact with 
hydrochloric acid. Small particles of water that make up the fog do not fall down, 
but they are in suspension and tend to agglomerate. A decrease in the size of 
nanoparticles to a value of the order of 10 nm leads to a decrease in the melting 
temperature Tm by several tens of percent compared to bulk objects. With a further 
decrease in size to 1–2 nm, Tm decreases several times. Experimentally, this effect 
was observed in many metals, in particular, in Al, Ag, Au, Cu, Ga, In, Sn, etc. An 
important example is the improvement of heat removal from a conductor with 
a decrease in its cross section. So, for a cylindrical wire, the energy dissipated in 
it falls according to the same law as its volume changes - as R3, and the heat 
removal area — as R2, which is much slower. This makes it possible to bring the 
current density in the conducting paths of integrated circuits to values unattainable 
in macrodevices without damaging them. 
The listed examples can be attributed to classical size effects, in which the 
energy spectrum of charge carriers remains practically unchanged. Another 
important reason for size effects in the nanoscale is the manifestation of quantum 
effects, which is observed in the range of units to tens of nm, when the sample 
size becomes comparable to the de Broglie wavelength of charge carriers. 
As we know from quantum mechanics, isolated atoms are characterized by 
a discrete structure of the energy levels of electrons. The interaction of a large 
number of atoms in a macroscopic solid lead to energy levels splitting and the 
formation of quasi-continuous zones. As the size of the object (nanoparticle) 
 
10