Мировая экономика

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE 
RUSSIAN FEDERATION 
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
of Higher Education
«Kuban State Agrarian University
named after I.T. Trubilin» 
Melnikov A.B., Mikhailushkin P.V., Alieva A.R. 
WORLD ECONOMY 
Textbook
Moscow 2022 

МИНИСТЕРСТВО СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА
РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное
образовательное учреждениие высшего образования
«Кубанский государственный аграрный
университет им. И. Т. Трубилина»
Мельников А.Б., Михайлушкин П.В., Алиева А.Р.
МИРОВАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА
Учебник
Москва 2022 

UDC 338 
BBK 65.5
R e v i e w e r s :
A.L. Poltarykhin – Doctor of Economics, Professor, Professor  
of the Department of Organizational and Managerial Innovations  
G.V. Plekhanov; 
A.A. Voronov – Doctor of Economics, Associate Professor, Professor 
of the Department of Logistics and Commercial Work, St. Petersburg State 
Transport University Emperor Alexander I. 
          Melnikov A.B., Mikhailushkin P.V., Alieva A.R. 
World Economy: Textbook / A.B. Melnikov, P.V. Mikhailushkin, 
A.R. Alieva - M .: Publishing house "Scientific consultant", 2022. - 378 p. 
ISBN 978-5-907692-00-8
The presented textbook examines the current aspects and trends of the 
world economy. The chapters of the textbook are devoted to the analysis of 
human capital and labor resources in the international division of labor. The 
socio-economic, technological and natural-resource component of the world 
economic system has been studied. The textbook presents the main approaches to the analysis of international integration and the concept of international trade. The economies of the USA, Japan, China and developing 
countries are analyzed separately. 
The textbook is intended for representatives of state, regional and municipal authorities, teachers, students and graduate students. 
          UDC 338 
BBK 65.5
ISBN 978-5-907692-00-8
© Melnikov A.B., 2022 
© Mikhailushkin P.V., 2022 
© Alieva A.R., 2022 
© Publishing house "Scientific consultant", 
   decoration, 2022 

УДК 338 
ББК 65.5 
М47
Р е ц е н з е н т ы :
А.Л. Полтарыхин – доктор экономических наук, профессор,
профессор кафедры организационно-управленческих инноваций
ФГБОУ ВО «РЭУ им. Г.В. Плеханова»;
А.А. Воронов – доктор экономических наук, доцент, профессор
кафедры логистики и коммерческой работы
ФГБОУ ВО «Петербургский государственный университет путей
сообщения Императора Александра I». 
Мельников А.Б., Михайлушкин П.В., Алиева А.Р.
М47
Мировая
экономика:
Учебник 
/ 
А.Б.
Мельников,
П.В. Михайлушкин, А.Р. Алиева – М.: Издательство «Научный
консультант», 2022. – 378 с.
ISBN 978-5-907692-00-8
В
представленном
учебнике
рассматриваются
современные
аспекты и тенденции мировой экономики. Главы учебника посвящены
анализу человеческого капитала и трудовых ресурсов в международном
разделении
труда.
Исследована
социально-экономическая,
технологическая и природно-ресурсная составляющая мировой экономической системы. В учебнике представлены основные подходы к
анализу международной интеграции и концепции международной
торговли. Отдельно проанализированы экономики США, Японии,
Китая и развивающихся стран.
Учебник
предназначен
для
представителей
органов
государственной,
региональной
и
муниципальной
власти,
преподавателей, студентов и аспирантов.
УДК 338 
ББК 65.5
ISBN 978-5-907692-00-8
© Мельников А.Б., 2022 
© Михайлушкин П. В., 2022 
© Алиева А.Р., 2022 
© Издательство «Научный консультант»,
оформление, 2022 

CONTENTS
Chapter 1. World economy: key features and development trends….…7 
Chapter 2. International division of labour………………………………
31
Chapter 3. Population and human resources of the world………………
49
Chapter 4. Natural resource potential of the world economy……..……72
Chapter 5. Global capital market and transnational corporations….……
89
Chapter 6. Countries classification by socio-economic  
development level………………………………………………………114
Chapter 7. International economic integration and integration  
associations…………………………………………………..…………135 
Chapter 8. Theories of the world economy and the main concepts
of international trade……………………………………………………161 
Chapter 9. Free economic zones and their impact on the world
economy…………………………………………………………………
193
Chapter 10. International currency system…………….…………………
222
Chapter 11. Russia in the system of international economic relations…252 
Chapter 12. Economy of the USA………………………………………
270
Chapter 13. Economy of Japan…………………………………………292 
Chapter 14. Economy of China………………………………..…………
316
Chapter 15. Developing countries in the global economy………………
335
Sources………………………………………………………………….360
5

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Глава 1. Мировое хозяйство: основные черты и тенденции
развития………………………………………………………….………
20
Глава 2. Международное разделение труда…………………………42 
Глава 3. Население и трудовые ресурсы мира………………………61 
Глава 4. Природно-ресурсный потенциал мирового хозяйства…… 
81 
Глава 5. Мировой рынок капитала и транснациональные
корпорации…………………………………………………….………103
Глава 6. Классификация стран по уровню
социально-экономического развития…………………………………
125
Глава 7. Международная экономическая интеграция
и интеграционные союзы…………………………………..…………148
Глава 8. Теории мировой экономики и основные концепции
международной торговли………………………………………………
176
Глава 9. Свободные экономические зоны и их влияние
на мировую экономику…………………………………………………
207
Глава 10. Международная валютная система…………………………
237
Глава 11. Россия в системе международных экономических
отношений………………………………………………………………
261
Глава 12. Экономика США……………………………………………
281
Глава 13. Экономика Японии…………………………………………
304
Глава 14. Экономика Китая……………………………………………
326
Глава 15. Развивающиеся страны в мировой экономике……………
347
Литература………………………………………………………………
360
6

CHAPTER 1. WORLD ECONOMY: KEY FEATURES AND
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS 
1. World economy essence. 
2. The subsystems of the world economy and their interaction. 
3. Stages of the world economy development. 
4. New tendencies and problems in the modern world economy. 
1. WORLD ECONOMY ESSENCE 
The key incentive for international economy appearance is international 
division of labour. Due to unequal variety of production factors, individual enterprises and countries specialize in the manufacture of certain goods or services and 
then exchange them. The international division of labour has two specific features: 
the specialization of production and exchange. 
International division of labour – is a particular kind of public division of 
labour. International division of labour in contrast to the domestic one is functioning among the enterprises of different countries. The functionality of international 
division of labour is based on the formation of strong economic ties between different countries in order to have the most beneficial effect on the structure of their 
national economy.  
The beneficial effect is determined by enabling the country: 1) to concentrate on the production of those goods and services for which it has the best conditions and 2) to expand the scale of production to meet the needs of its own population and also of partner countries population. 
At the same time, this participation allows countries to refuse from productions, for which they do not have proper conditions and to ensure their consumption through imports. Countries are endowed with resources at different levels, 
however, the goal for all of them is to obtain maximum economic benefits. Realization of the effect obtained by participants of the international division of labour 
is the result of the law of value manifested in differences between national and international value of goods. 
In any social and economic conditions value is formed from the costs of 
means of production, wages and surplus value. Thus, all goods entering the market 
participate in the formation of international values (world prices). 
Advantages realization of the international division of labour within goods 
and services exchange allows any country to receive a difference between international and national value of exported goods and services, and to save domestic 
costs by cheaper imports and refusal from expensive national productions. 
Under the influence of international division of labour, trade connections between countries complicate and develop into a complex system of world economic 
7

relations. Trade, in its traditional meaning, still possess a leading position, although it constantly loses its significance.
The external economic sphere of the world economy becomes more complicated and consists of: international trade, international specialization and production cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation, joint construction of enterprises and their subsequent operation on international terms, international economic organizations, various services and much more.  
Despite all the complexity and inconsistency, the modern world, as to its 
economic sense, is a certain expedient system, united by internationally socialized 
production, with relatively a high level of development. It was the international division of labour that allowed to integrate the world economic system (the world 
economy) from individual elements [22]. 
World economy is a historically built aggregate of all countries’ national economies, linked by economic relations, i.e. world market. The key incentive for international economy appearance is international division of labour. 
The basis of the world economy is economic development – its quantitative 
and qualitative stable changes in the economy, including economy structure, population growth and growth of its needs, based on expanded reproduction. The main 
criterion of economic development is economic growth (extensive and intensive). 
It is a change in the volume of goods and services produced and their qualitative 
modernization [22]. 
2. THE SUBSYSTEMS OF THE WORLD ECONOMY  
AND THEIR INTERACTION
A distinctive feature of the world economy structure is the plurality of its 
components - economic entities. They are divided into two main groups:
first group – interactive business-structures (economic entities) – specific 
economic operators (companies) which are directly carrying out entrepreneurial 
activity;
second group – a set of institutions that regulate the activity of economic 
entities and the relationships between them; and implement economic policies at 
sectoral, regional, national, intergovernmental and supranational levels. 
Subjects of world economic relations can be either legal or natural persons, 
engaged in the implementation of international economic operations. The key economic entities in the world economy are: transnational corporations (TNCs), longterm strategic alliances, transnational banks (TNBs), institutional investors, financial and industrial groups (FIGs), world financial centers, major stock exchanges.
The second group of world economy subjects includes: national governments, various territories, which being not sovereign states, are considered by international organizations as separate entities (Hong Kong, etc.), sub-sovereign entities - regional and local authorities entering the world market, self-regulating organizations of professional participants in various financial markets, business asso8

ciations, chambers  of commerce, trade unions, international economic and financial institutions – organizations, coordinating the activities of countries in various 
spheres of the world economy. 
Figure 1 – Mechanism, subjects and objects of the world economic relations  
Countries of the world are the main subjects of the world economy, since the 
development of their national economies influences the development dynamics of 
9

neighboring countries and ultimately determines the direction and quality of the 
entire world economy evolution. By the level, nature, speed of economic development, degree of integration into the world economy, socio-economic structure and 
other parameters, they significantly differ from each other. These qualitative differences are the basis for classifications of countries used by various international 
institutions and organizations. 
Socio-economic structure of the world economy includes: developed countries of market economy, developing countries, countries with economies in transition. 
Differentiation basis contains: level of economic development and social structure of the economy, type of economic growth and the character of foreign economic relations, volume of economic potential etc. 
The group of developed countries with market economy includes the states with 
the highest material standard of living, although they may contain significant areas 
characterized by extreme poverty. In this group of countries, a significant share of 
economy sphere belongs to services of a high-tech and / or complex nature. They 
are centers of scientific research and do not resort to foreign financial assistance. 
The countries that have the largest GDP in the world (United States, China, Japan, 
Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada) and other developed countries 
are distinguished within the group as the largest industrialized countries [135]. 
In economic literature they are called industrially developed countries, developed countries with market economies and industrial countries.
Countries with economies in transition have transitive economies from the command-administrative system to the market economy. The reforms carried out in 
these countries since the middle of 1980s led to serious economic upheavals, significant reduction in production and deterioration of socio-economic conditions. 
By the level of national economy development and its structure, several groups can 
be defined. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) groups them by regions:  
– Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs): – Bulgaria, Hungary, 
Albania, Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and the states of 
the former Yugoslavia; 
– the former republics that were part of the USSR and which formed the 
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) – 10 states; 
– Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia). 
The rest of the world’s countries are referring to the group of developing 
countries and are classified according to several criteria: 
1) by geographical location (countries of Africa, Latin America and the 
Caribbean [8], countries of Asia and the Pacific, including West Asia and China, 
East and South Asia, including the Pacific Islands);
2) by economic development level one can distinguish: 
fuel-exporting countries, in which domestic production of primary commercial fuel (oil, natural gas, coal and lignite) exceeds domestic consumption by 20% 
and the share of fuel in total exports is at least 20% (Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Bo10