Fundamentals of Translation

Ю. И. Бутенко, Т. Д. Маргарян

Fundamentals of Translation

Учебное пособие

Федеральное государственное бюджетное  

образовательное учреждение высшего образования  

«Московский государственный технический университет имени Н.Э. Баумана  

(национальный исследовательский университет)»

ISBN 978-5-7038-5337-5

© МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана, 2020
© Оформление. Издательство 
 
МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана, 2020

Б93

УДК 81:378 (075)
ББК 81.2 Англ
        Б93

Издание доступно в электронном виде по адресу

https://bmstu.press/catalog/item/6599/

Факультет «Лингвистика»

Кафедра «Английский язык для машиностроительных специальностей»

Рекомендовано Научно-методическим советом МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана

в качестве учебного пособия 

Рецензент

кандидат филологических наук О.Ю. Рязанцева

Бутенко, Ю. И.

Fundamentals of Translation : учебное пособие / Ю. И. Бутенко,  

Т. Д. Маргарян. — Москва : Издательство МГТУ им. Н. Э. Баумана,  
2020. — 75, [3] с. 

ISBN 978-5-7038-5337-5

Содержит 12 разделов, в каждом из которых приведены основы теории 

перевода, объяснения особенностей технического перевода, упражнения 
для выработки практических навыков, а также вопросы для самоконтроля. 
Предназначено для развития у студентов компетенции перевода научнотехнической литературы. Материал пособия способствует формированию 
у студентов теоретической базы по научно-техническому переводу.

Для  студентов бакалавриата, обучающихся по направлениям подготов
ки «Теория и практика межкультурной коммуникации» и «Прикладная 
лингвистика».

УДК 81:378 (075)
ББК 81.2 Англ

Предисловие

Издание разработано в соответствии с Образовательным стандартом МГТУ 

им. Н.Э. Баумана по курсу «Практический научно-технический перевод» для 
самостоятельной работы студентов, обучающихся в бакалавриате по направлениям подготовки «Теория и практика межкультурной коммуникации»  
и «Прикладная лингвистика». Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов, 
не имеющих предварительного опыта перевода, но в своей учебной и профессиональной деятельности занимающихся переводом научно-технической 
литературы. 

Цель данного пособия — ознакомить студентов с основами перевода, 

сформировать у них переводческую компетенцию для успешной работы  
с научно-техническими текстами на английском языке по специализации, 
изучаемой в вузе.

Пособие содержит 12 разделов. При модульной системе обучения в каж
дый модуль включено по 4 раздела (темы). 

Учебное пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной ра
боты, оно представляет собой введение в основы научно-технического перевода. В издании ясно и кратко изложены фундаментальные понятия теории 
и практики перевода, включая такие вопросы, как: 

теория перевода; 
эквивалентность в переводе; 
виды и методы перевода; 
различные подходы при переводе с английского языка на русский. 
Авторы пособия объясняют, что такое переводческая компетенция и ка
ковы особенности технического перевода. В конце каждого раздела приведены вопросы для самоконтроля. В приложении представлены отрывки из 
аутентичных научно-технических текстов для развития практических навыков 
перевода. Эти тексты также могут быть использованы преподавателями для 
проверки уровня сформированности навыков научно-технического перевода 
у студентов.

Книга представляет интерес для практикующих студентов-переводчиков 

неязыковых специальностей, которые хотят расширить теор тическую базу 
и свои знания о переводе. Пособие может быть использовано в качестве дополнительной литературы на практических занятиях по английскому языку 
с аспирантами, специалистами и студентами старших курсов неязыковых 
специальностей.

е

Введение

Современный выпускник технического вуза должен обладать целым на
бором компетенций, в том числе и компетенцией технического перевода. 
Однако переводить с одного языка на другой не означает просто заменять 
слова. Каждый переводчик должен владеть переводческой компетенцией. 

Переводческая компетенция — особый набор способностей, знаний  

и навыков, необходимых для успешного занятия профессиональной переводческой деятельностью. Переводческая компетенция включает способности понимания исходного текста и создания текста на языке оригинала. 
Широта и богатство творческого потенциала переводчика проявляются в его 
способности осмыслить изложенное (сказанное), обработать информацию, 
выраженную словами, понять за ними мысль, которую надо тут же гибко  
и адекватно передать на другом языке. 

Авторы надеются, что теоретический материал в сочетании с практиче
скими примерами, представленными в учебном пособии, помогут студентам, 
изучающим основы перевода, выстроить четкую систему понятий перевода, 
освоить основные стратегии перевода и подходы к нему, которые обуча- 
ющиеся смогут применить на практике.

THE PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION

Language as a means of communication

A language is a code which possesses features — phonological (and, in the case 

of written languages, graphological), syntactic, lexical and semantic — and a language 
use is made possible by making selections among these sets of code features in order 
“to create … adequate vehicles for the communication of meaning” [1:8].

Thus, language has a dual nature: it is (1) a formal structure (a code) and  

(2) a communication system. “Indeed, any language resembles a code being a system 
of interrelated material signs (sounds or letters), various combinations of which stand 
for various messages...” [1:12].

The process of language communication involves sending a message by a message 

sender to a message recipient — the sender encodes his mental message into the 
code of a particular language and the recipient decodes it using the same code 
(language) [15:21].

During the last fifty years the study of language has undergone radical changes: 

the focus of interest has widened from the purely historical to the contemporary, 
from the prescriptive to the descriptive, from the theoretical system to the concrete 
realization, from the micro-level of the sign to the macro-structure of the text [10:8].

Definitions of translation

Translation is a specific type of bilingual communication since (as opposed to 

bilingual communication proper) it involves a third actor (translator), and for the 
message sender and recipient the communication is, in fact, monolingual [15:22].

Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by 

a representation of an equivalent text in a second language [6].

The following definition has been given in his own translation from French by 

R. Bell: “Translation is the expression in another language (or target language — TL) 
of what has been expressed in another, source language — SL, preserving semantic 
and stylistic equivalences” [1].

He also defines the goal of translation as “the transformation of a text original
ly in one language into an equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as 
possible, the content of the message and the formal features and functional roles of 
the original text” [1:5].

What is translation? Often, though not by any means always, it is rendering  

the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended  
the text [8:5].

Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message  

and/or statement in one language by the same message and or statement in another language. Each exercise involves some kind of loss of meaning, due to a number 
of factors. It provokes a continuous tension, a dialectic, an argument based on the 
claims of each language. The basic loss is on a continuum between overtranslation 
(increased detail) and undertranslation (increased generalization) [7:7].

Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes 

possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by 
producing in TL a text which has an identical communicative value with the source 
(or original) text (ST). This target text (TT, which is the translation) is not fully 
identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the 
formal and semantic differences between SL and TL. Nevertheless the users of TT 
identify it to all intents and purposes, with ST — functionally, structurally and semantically [12:4].

Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its common and 

most general meaning being mostly associated with the action or process of  
rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a source language word, word-group, 
sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the 
process/action of rendering.

The role of the translator

It is a little ironic that the role of the translator has only recently become  

a concern in translation studies [2:3]. The translator is a bilingual mediating agent 
between monolingual communication participants in two different language communities, i.e. the translator decodes messages transmitted in one language and 
re-encodes them in another.

It is the re-encoding process that marks the bilingual translator off from the 

monolingual communicator. As receivers, both have the same involvement in decoding — the difference is one of degrees rather than of kinds — but their encoding 
behaviour is in strong contrast.

When taking a turn as a sender, the monolingual is obliged

(a) to encode a text into the language used by the sender,
(b) to encode messages which are different from those received and
(c) to transmit them to the previous sender.

The translator’s acts contrast on all three scores. For the translator, the encoding

(a) consists of re-encoding into a different language,
(b) concerns the same message as was received,
(c) is aimed at a group of receivers who are not the same as the original sender [1:15].

A simplified presentation of translation as a unidirectional and linear process:

(1) a translator receives signal 1 containing a message,
(2) recognizes code 1,
(3) decodes signal 1,
(4) retrieves a message,
(5) comprehends the message;
(6) translator selects code 2,
(7) encodes a message by means of code 2,
(8) selects a channel,
(9) transmits signal 2 containing the message [1:19].

Questions

1. How does a language act as a means of communication?
2. What changes have taken place in linguistic studies over the past fifty years? What 

impact do you think they have had on the translation theory?

3. Compare the definitions of translation proposed by several scholars. How do they 

differ? Which one seems to be the most encompassing? Can you suggest your 
own version?

4. What are the differences between monolingual and bilingual communication? 

What happens if a mediating agent (translator) participates in the bilingual 
communication process?

5. R. Bell admits that his model of translating is ‘rather crude and vague’ because 

it is based on the assumption that translation is a unidirectional and a linear 
process. Can you think of situations when decoding becomes cyclic and 
cooperative rather than linear and unidirectional?

Practice your translation skills

Imperative Mood

1. 
Suppose further that we propose the following general definitions. 

2. 
Note that the test can be useful even when its basis is poorly understood. 

3. 
As a final motivation here, for the usefulness of the analysis, compare (20) and (21). 

4. 
If a dispute arises, re-formulate the project to eliminate the problem. 

5. 
Suppose we adopt a hierarchical relationship between the two subtheories by 
fiat, such that the second presupposes the existence of the first. 

6. 
Notice that we do not attempt to constitute something novel here. See Appendix 
A for a complete explanation of the statistical methods used in this test. 

7. 
Let b(n) denote the total number of non-isomorphic structures. 

8. 
Let us tabulate and briefly analyze the problem to be met. 

9. 
Let us summarize briefly the characteristic features of tunnel diodes. 

10. In conclusion, let me summarize what has been done. 

11. Let me start by giving an analogy. 
12. Let me conclude with one more example. 
13. Let us see how this force acts in the abstract. 
14. Let us begin by examining these “Writings” in detail.
15. But let us assure for the sake of argument that Cole is right in this matter. 
16. Next let us deal with each hypothesis and generalization in turn. 
17. Let us set down two requirements for the adequacy of the analysis. 
18. Let us now examine more closely the findings of the third statistical test with 

respect to each of our four parameters. 

19. Let us recall that at least a century and a half had to pass before the Copernican 

view of our local Universe was established.

Must, have to and should

1. 
These facts must be expected to produce variation. 

2. 
Hence, this approach must be wrong.

3. 
It must have been an exciting and rewarding symposium. 

4. 
Clearly, there must have been good reasons for this fundamental change. 

5. 
The process of their decay must have been very gradual but constant. 

6. 
The evolution of such a state must have been substantially motivated by the 
need to preserve information content. 

7. 
The exact import of Maloney’s claims must be established and tested, and the 
range of data expanded to cover other system types. 

8. 
It should follow that (37–40) are anomalous. 

9. 
Proponents of such theories should read this book. 

10. Two points in connection with (13) should be noted. 
11. No theoretical significance should be attached to the term. 
12. The hypothetical character of all these formalisms should now be clear. 
13. Further studies should include analysis of both of these sets of features. 
14. It should be clear that this is not a counterexample to the general principle that 

we have proposed. 

15. Why should the discussion of a scientific theory be constrained by a national 

boundary ? 

16. One should note the recent rise of attention to these questions. 
17. Someone should have edited the style of the non-native users of English. 
18. Of course, new evidence might prove that this model should be changed or 

replaced. 

19. The availability of this important collection should serve to stimulate considerable 

interest in structuralism. 

20. These results should be of interest to all those who are interested in hypothesis 

formation. 

TRANSLATION THEORY

A theory is an explanation of a phenomenon, the perception of system and 

order in something observed. It exists  in the mind. It has no tangible manifestation 
[1:24–25]. As any observable phenomenon, translation can be the object of a scientific study aimed at understanding its nature, its components and their interaction 
as well as various factors influencing it or linked with it in a meaningful way. Theoretical research is to discover what translation is, to find out what objective factors 
underlie the translator’s intuition, to describe the ways and methods by which the 
identity of the communicative value of ST and TT is achieved. The objective knowledge obtained can then be used to help the translator to improve his performance 
as well as to train future translators [1:5].

The core of the translation theory is the general theory of translation which is 

concerned with the fundamental aspects of translation inherent in the nature of 
bilingual communication and therefore common to all translation events, irrespective of what languages are involved or what kind of text and under what circumstances was translated. Basically, replacement of ST by TT of the same communicative value is possible because both texts are produced in human speech governed by 
the same rules and implying the same relationships between language, reality and 
the human mind.  In any language communication is made possible through  
a complicated logical interpretation by users of the speech units, involving an assessment of the meaning of the language signs against the information derived from 
the contextual situation, general knowledge, previous experience, various associations 
and other factors. The general theory of translation deals with translation universal 
and is the basis for all other theoretical study in this area, since it describes what 
translation is and what makes it possible [12:6].

The general theory of translation describes the basic principles which hold good 

for each and every translation event. In each particular case, however, the translating process is influenced both by the common basic factors and by a number of 
specific variables which stem from the actual conditions and modes of the translator’s work: the type of original texts he has to cope with, the form in which ST is 
presented to him and the form in which he is supposed to submit his translation, 
the specific requirements he may be called upon to meet in his work, etc. [12:7].

S. Bassnett-McGuire states that the purpose of translation theory is “to reach 

an understanding of the processes undertaken in the act of translation and not as is 
so commonly misunderstood, to provide a set of norms for effecting the perfect 
translation” [1:22].

As R. de Beaugrande warns: “it is inappropriate to expect that a theoretical 

model of translation should solve all the problems a translator encounters. Instead, 
it should formulate a set of strategies for approaching problems and for coordinating the different aspects entailed” [1:23]. 

We have to bear in mind that, as W. Wilss puts it, “Neither psycholinguistics nor 

neurology can as yet provide reliable information on how linguistic data are stored 
in the brain, how linguistic matching procedures take place and what mental structures are active in recalling linguistic information” [1:24].

Translation theory’s main concern is to determine appropriate translation meth
ods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories. Further, it provides  
a framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem  solving. Translation theory attempts 
to give some insight into the relation between thought, meaning and language; the 
universal, cultural and individual aspects of language and behaviour, the understanding of cultures; the interpretation of texts that may be clarified and even supplemented by way of translation [7:19].

Questions

1. In V. Komissarov’s opinion, what makes translation possible?
2. What are the interacting components in translation?
3. How can W. Wilss’ observation affect translation studies?
4. What are the aims of a translation theory according to P. Newmark?

Practice your translation skills

Sequence of Tenses

1. 
He claimed that Gibbs (1989) had earlier suggested such a solution. 

2. 
The investigators noted that the two variables had three levels. 

3. 
We learnt that the results reported by these scientists were erroneous. 

4. 
They concluded that his ongoing project was also a failure. 

5. 
In Larson (1992) he agreed with Jabrdon that the analysis was hard to take 
seriously for other reasons. 

6. 
He showed that it was 02 that had the most similarities to 05. 

7. 
The originators of the theory argued that it was essential to take such relations 
as primitives. 

8. 
Results showed that the relative frequencies were significantly different. 

9. 
Their results demonstrated that such an event could have happened even before 
the date. 

10. Friesen (1993) insisted that this class of variation had already been studied, 

presumably by Kuiken (1991). 

11. We were told that the names would be read in a numerical order.