Innovations and inventions

М. Н. Милеева 

INNOVATIONS AND INVENTIONS 

Учебное пособие 

Москва
Издательство «ФЛИНТА» 
2018

3-е издание, стереотипное

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Англ-923

М60

Милеева М. Н.

Innovations and inventions [Электронный ресурс] : учеб. пособие / 
М.Н. Милеева. — 3-е изд., стер. — М. : ФЛИНТА, 2018. — 111 с.

ISBN 978-5-9765-1644-1

Пособие посвящено рассмотрению проблем инноваций и изобретений

последней четверти прошлого века. Каждый из 11 представленных в пособии
разделов предполагает самостоятельную работу с оригинальным текстом и снабжен
целым рядом заданий, нацеленных на формирование у магистрантов логического
мышления, развитие творческого подхода к предлагаемым ситуативным задачам,
а также совершенствование навыков говорения и изложения собственного мнения
по затронутым проблемам. 

Предназначено для аудиторной работы студентов первого курса магистратуры

(факультет фундаментальной и прикладной химии).

УДК 811.111(075.8)

ББК 81.2Анг-923

ISBN 978-5-9765-1644-1
© Издательство “ФЛИНТА”, 2013 

М60

Рецензенты:

кандидат филологических наук, доцент И. В. Куликова

(Ивановский государственный университет)

кандидат филологических наук, доцент В. А. Лобанов
(Ивановская государственная медицинская академия)

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ 

Unit 1. Innovation: historical background ……………………………….5

Unit 2. Innovative activity and creativity ………………………………...8 

Unit 3. Types of innovation …………………………………………….13 

Unit 4. Sources of innovation …………………………………………..16 

Unit 5. Cultural stereotypes and innovation management …………..….26 

Unit 6. Failure of innovation …………………………………………....32

Unit 7. Inventions in the market ……………………………………..…39 

Unit 8. Inventions in our life ………………………………………...….46 

Unit 9. Inventions in chemistry …………………………………………54 

Unit 10. ―Ladies Edisons‖ ………………………………………………67 

Unit 11. Top 25 innovations of the last quarter century ………………..92 

Final test …………………………………………………………...…..105 

Appendix ………………………………………………………..……..107 

Список использованных источников ………………………….……110

Unit 1 

INNOVATION: HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS 

“Research is to see what everybody else has seen, 

and to think what nobody else has thought.‖ 

Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1893-1986) 

The problem of innovation 

The notion ‗innovation‘ is very closely connected 
with the problem of great importance in the history of 
technology. Strictly speaking, any innovation is 
something entirely new and original, but the pioneers of 
inventions and innovations are often not the ones who 
develop their ideas into commercial success because it 
is impossible for an inventor to work in a vacuum and, 
however ingenious his invention is, timing is a mater of 
luck or of quite exceptional skill. It is obvious that any 
technological innovation must arise out of an inventor‘s 
own previous experience. The task of distinguishing an 
element of novelty in an invention is completed according to the patent law 
down to the present day, but the problem becomes relatively easy by the 
possession of full documentary records covering previous inventions in many 
countries. 

However, very few such records exist, and it is frequently difficult to 
explain how particular innovations of the ancients have been introduced to 
Western Europe. The problem is rather complicated, especially because it is 
known that many inventions had been developed previously and independently 
in other civilizations. Moreover, it is sometimes difficult if not impossible to 
know whether something is spontaneous innovation or an invention that had 
been transmitted by some yet undiscovered route from those who had originated 
it in other societies. 

The problem is important because it generates a conflict of interpretations 
about the transmission of technology. On the one hand, the theory exists, 
according to which all innovation has moved westward from the longestablished civilizations of the ancient world, with Egypt and Mesopotamia as 
the two favourite candidates for the ultimate source of the progress. On the other 
hand, there is the theory of spontaneous innovation, according to which 
technological modernization is greatly dependable on the primary social needs. 
Scholars are yet unable to solve the problem as far as technological advances of 
the Middle Ages are concerned because much information is missing. 
Nevertheless, it does seem likely that at least some of the key inventions of that 
period — such as the windmill and gunpowder — have been developed 

spontaneously. It is quite certain, however, that in the early centuries Western 
civilization, however original its contributions to technological innovation were, 
addressed to the East for ideas and inspiration. 

Ancient world technology 
Technology in the ancient world is mostly characterized by the first giant 
step of fashioning man‘s own tools. Ancient people observed animals 
occasionally using sticks or stones for their natural needs. It took many years for 
a man to arrive at the successive stages of standardizing his simple stone 
choppers and ploughs and of manufacturing them. A degree of specialization in 
tool making was achieved by the time of Neanderthal man (70,000 BC); more 
advanced tools, requiring assemblage of head and haft, were produced by CroMagnon Homo sapiens (perhaps as early as 35,000 BC), while the application of 
mechanical principles was achieved by pottery-making Neolithic man (6000 
BC) and by Metal Age man (about 3000 BC). 

For all except approximately the last 10,000 years, man has lived almost 
entirely in small nomadic communities, dependent for survival on his skill in 
gathering food by hunting and fishing and in avoiding predators. It is reasonable 
to suppose that most of these communities developed in tropical latitudes, 
especially in Africa, where climatic conditions are most favourable to a creature 
with such poor bodily protection as man. It is also sensible to expect that tribes 
of men moved out thence into the subtropical regions and eventually into the 
landmass of Eurasia. Their colonization of this region must have been severely 
limited by the successive periods of glaciations, which rendered large parts of it 
inhospitable and even uninhabitable, even though man has shown remarkable 
versatility in adapting to such unfavourable conditions. 

Middle Ages and Western Europe 
The millennium between the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 
the 5th century AD and the beginning of the colonial expansion of Western 
Europe in the late 15th century has been known traditionally as the Middle 
Ages, and the first half of this period consists of the five centuries of the Dark 
Ages. In the first place, many of the institutions of the later empire survived the 
collapse and profoundly influenced the formation of the new civilization that 
developed in Western Europe. Second, and more important, the Teutonic tribes 
that moved into a large part of Western Europe did not come empty-handed, and 
in some respects, their technology was superior to that of the Romans. These 
tribes appear to have been the first people with sufficiently strong iron 
plowshares to undertake the systematic settlement of the forested lowlands of 
Northern and Western Europe, the heavy soils of which had frustrated the 
agricultural techniques of their predecessors. 

The invaders came thus as colonizers. However, the newcomers also 
provided an element of innovation and vitality. For 500 years, the new 

civilization grew in strength and began to experiment in all aspects of human 
activity. Much of this process involved recovering the knowledge and 
achievements of the ancient world. The history of medieval technology is thus 
largely the story of the preservation, recovery, and modification of earlier 
achievements. Only by the end of the period, Western civilization had begun to 
produce some remarkable technological innovations that were inevitably to be of 
the utmost significance. 

The emergence of Western technology (1500 — 1750) 
The period from 1500 to 1750 witnessed the emergence of Western 
technology. The superior techniques of Western civilization enabled the nations 
that composed it to expand their influence over the completely known world. 
Yet, this period was not marked by any outstanding technological innovation. 
The only exception of that time was the steam engine developing. However, it 
was the evolution that, perhaps, became more important than any particular 
innovation, which has been called ‗the invention of invention‘. The creation of a 
political and social environment conducive to invention, the building up of vast 
commercial resources to support inventions seemed to produce profitable 
results. The exploitation of mineral, agricultural, and other raw material 
resources for industrial purposes, and, above all, the recognition of specific 
needs for invention and unwillingness to be defeated by difficulties, together 
created a society maturity for an industrial revolution based on technological 
innovation. The industrial achievements of the period 1500 — 1750, therefore, 
must be judged in part by their substantial contribution to the spectacular 
innovations of the following period. 

The Industrial Revolution (1750 — 1900) 
The events of the traditional Industrial Revolution had been well prepared 
in an increasing tempo of industrial, commercial, and technological activity 
from about AD 1000 and led into a continuing acceleration of the processes of 
industrialization that is still proceeding in our own time. The notion ‗Industrial 
Revolution‘ is suitable to describe an extraordinary quickening in the rate of 
growth and change, and more particularly, the first 150 years of this period, as it 
will be convenient to pursue the developments of the 20th century separately. 

The Industrial Revolution, in this sense, has been a worldwide 
phenomenon, at least as far as it has occurred in all those parts of the world, of 
which there are very few exceptions, where the influence of Western civilization 
has been great. Beyond any doubt, it occurred first in Britain, and its effects 
spread only gradually to continental Europe and North America. It is also clear, 
that the Industrial Revolution eventually transformed these parts of the Western 
world and surpassed in magnitude the achievements of Britain. Besides, the 
process was being carried further to radically change the socioeconomic life of 
the Far East, Africa, Latin America, and Australasia. 

An outstanding feature of the Industrial Revolution has been the advance 
in power technology. At the beginning of this period, the major sources of 
power available to industry and any other potential consumer were animate 
energy and the power of wind and water, the only exception of any significance 
being the atmospheric steam engines that had been installed for pumping 
purposes, mainly in coalmines. It should be emphasized that this use of steam 
power was exceptional and remained so for most industrial purposes until the 
19th century. Steam did not simply replace other sources of power: it 
transformed them. The same sort of scientific inquiry that led to the 
development of the steam engine was also applied to the traditional sources of 
inanimate energy, due to which both waterwheels and windmills were improved 
in design and efficiency. Numerous engineers contributed to the refinement of 
waterwheel construction, and by the middle of the 19th century new designs 
made possible increases in the speed of revolution of the waterwheel and thus 
prepared the way for the emergence of the water turbine, which is still an 
extremely efficient device for converting energy. 

Speculate on the following questions: 

1. 
What do you understand by ‗innovation‘? Find and give definitions of the 
notion ‗innovation‘ from different English-English dictionaries, compare 
them. 

2. 
What do you think about close links between inventors and the 
environment? What is of more importance? 

3. 
What are general reasons for innovations? 

4. 
Why do you think it is important to protect one‘s invention? 

5. 
Is it possible to speak of evolution and transmission of innovation? Give 
your reasons and arguments. 

6. 
What are main ancient innovations? What were the reasons for their 
appearance? 

7. 
What can you say about the evolution of ancient innovations? Were they 
improved in any way? Why? 

8. 
What is medieval technology characterized with? 

9. 
What political and social institutions do you think should appear in order 
to support inventions? 

10. Why do you think Industrial Revolution was possible? What was its most 
outstanding feature? 

11. What main achievements of Industrial Revolution do you know? 

Choose one of the topics to prepare an individual report or presentation: 

1. 
Asian contributions to technology. 

2. 
Classic scholarship of antiquity and the Middle Ages. 

3. 
Great achievements of the 20th century. 

4. 
History of technology from Middle Ages to 1750. 

5. 
Life and inventions of Archimedes. 

6. 
Modern technology (nanotechnology). 

7. 
Technology from 1900 to 1945. 

8. 
Technology in the ancient world — Stone Age technology. 

9. 
The Industrial Revolution (1750–1900): the role of Britain. 

10. 
Western contributions to technology. 

Unit 2 

INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY AND CREATIVITY 

―All progress, all success springs from thinking.‖ 

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) 

Being first in the field of inventions is not enough. Innovation is the 
process that modifies new and original ideas through their thorough 
development and wide business activity into saleable goods, processes and 
services in demand. 

In economics, business and government policy everything new should be 
substantially different from others, rather than an insignificant change. The 
innovative activity concerns as a rule both radical and incremental changes to 
required products, processes and services. The often unspoken goal of 
innovation is to solve a problem. Innovation is a key issue in the fields of 
economics, business, technology, sociology and engineering. Since innovation is 
thought to be a major driver of the economy, the factors that lead to innovation 
are also critical to policy makers. 

In the organizational context, innovation may be linked to its performance 
and growth through improvements in efficiency, productivity, quality, 
competitive positioning, market share, etc. All organizations can innovate, 
including, for example, hospitals, universities and local governments. While 
innovation typically adds value to some existing thing, it may also have a 
negative or destructive effect as new developments clear away or change old 
organizational forms and practices. Organizations that do not innovate 
effectively may be destroyed by those that do. 

In addition, it is of great importance that everyone in the business has the 
potential to be creative. Each member of the organization has a different 
viewpoint or may come from a different background. This will help in 
deliberation of the variety of ideas created. Even the smallest idea can be the 
cause of an improvement in various spheres. 

Give your opinion on the following questions: 

1. 
Find the definitions of innovation in different monolingual dictionaries. 
Compare them. 

2. 
Comment upon the quotation by Thomas Edison. 

3. 
Do you agree that is it absolutely necessary to innovate and create 
something new? Give your opinion and arguments. 

4. 
Do you agree that all organizations can innovate? Share your view and 
give some arguments. 

5. 
What do you think are advantages and disadvantages of innovation? 

6. 
What category does innovation belong to? 

7. 
What is your problem solving style? 

Necessity is the mother of invention 

Innovation increases the likelihood of any business succeeding. 
Nevertheless, innovation itself cannot make the company or organization 
successful and prospering. There are some factors to be accounted. The success 
of large established corporations is generally based on their depth of technical 
expertise and their marketing skills. However, most people do not know where 
and how to start. People often confuse an innovating process with just an 
invention. Innovation is more and much wider in the meaning than the latter. It 
also concerns new ideas, responds to new trends and market conditions as well 
as introduces improvements into products and services that already exist. 

As a starting point of any innovation, one desperately needs strange and 
unfamiliar ideas. These ideas will form the basis for new products, services or 
processes, which will meet all the requirements, are the result of a respond 
opportunity or even solve a chronic problem. The sources of such ideas can arise 
from any number of areas including trade and different industries, or problems 
one may have encountered. While there are no concrete and faultless ways to 
guarantee success in finding or creating great ideas, one of the best ways is to be 
rather attentive and thoughtful to existed needs and requirements. 

In order to start the flow of ideas it is necessary to increase innovation in 
business. There are a number of basic organizational characteristics to generate 
and support an innovative business culture. They include the following 
important features. 

 Of great importance are the internal and the external culture of a 
business in which it operates. Innovation thrives in a business culture that is not 
afraid of risk-taking, promotes the value of experimenting, is adaptable to 
changing environment and rewards all positive efforts. An innovation usually 
needs to be initiated from the top management of the business. 

 In order for a business to be innovative, it must be flexible and open to 
new ideas. Managers need to adopt a positive attitude and focus on the potential 
for enhancing competitiveness through innovation. 

The allocation of resources for innovation including finance and 
personnel is dependent on management understanding the benefits of new ideas. 
Unfortunately, business expenditure on innovation is often referred to as costs 
rather than investment, and improvements to operational processes may not be 
considered as innovation at all. Resources should supply innovation, even if it 
just gives all the participants time to come up with new ideas. 

 A free flow of information and ideas in all directions within the 
business encourages the emergence of new ways of performing and, besides, can 
lead to the development of new goods. Processes, which allow human resources 
to suggest improvements and ideas, circulate these novelties to top management 
and should result in reward for their entrepreneurial behaviour. 

 To enhance innovation skills a culture of continuous learning must be 
widely encouraged by introducing various training programs into the job. 

Speculate on the following questions: 

1. 
How do you understand the well-known saying ―Necessity is the mother 
of invention‖? Give your interpretation. 

2. 
Do you see any difference between innovation and invention? 

3. 
What do you understand by creativity? 

4. 
What is creative potential? 

5. 
Is it possible to develop creativity in a person or is it a gift? 

6. 
What should management strategy according to its personnel be? 

7. 
Do you agree that the top management of the business should lead 
innovation? 

8. 
Do you think any business can be innovative? 

9. 
What do you understand by information flow in all directions? 

10. 
Is there any difference between expenditure and investment? 

11. 
Which part of the organizational structure in your opinion should create 
new ideas? 

And now you are offered a test [2, p. 78-88] to see whether you have 
some creative potential. Answer the questions and make your score! 

How creative are you? 

1. 
How would you identify your personality? Would you identify yourself as 
being:  
independent
a traditionalist

persistent
good humoured

sceptical
susceptible

a risk taker
timid

grave
highly motivated