Журнал зарубежного законодательства и сравнительного правоведения, 2019, № 2

Второй выпуск 
(№ 75) 2019 
Издается с 2005 года

Свидетельство о регистрации
СМИ ПИ № ФС77-57274
от 12 марта 2014 г.

ISSN 1991-3222 (print)
ISSN 2587-9995 (online)

DOI 10.12737/issn.1991-3222

Журнал включен:
в Перечень рецензируемых  
научных изданий, в которых должны 
быть опубликованы основные научные результаты диссертаций на соискание ученой степени кандидата/
доктора наук (утв. Высшей аттестационной комиссией при Министерстве образования и науки Российской Федерации);
базу данных «Российский  индекс  
научного цитирования».

УЧРЕДИТЕЛЬ
Институт законодательства  
и сравнительного правоведения 
при Правительстве
Российской Федерации

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ЗАРУБЕЖНОГО ЗАКОНОДАТЕЛЬСТВА 
И СРАВНИТЕЛЬНОГО ПРАВОВЕДЕНИЯ

РЕДАКЦИОННЫЙ СОВЕТ

Хабриева Т. Я. (главный редактор), директор Института законодательства и 
сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации, академик Российской академии наук, действительный член Международной академии сравнительного права, член Европейской комиссии за демократию через право (Венецианской комиссии Совета Европы), д-р юрид. наук, проф., засл. юрист 
Российской Федерации
Ковлер А. И. (зам. главного редактора), заведующий центром зарубежного 
законодательства и сравнительного правоведения Института законодательства 
и сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации, профессор Московского государственного университета им. М. В. Ломоносова, судья 
Европейского суда по правам человека (1999—2012) в отставке, чл.-корр. Международной академии сравнительного права, д-р юрид. наук, засл. юрист Российской Федерации
Автономов А. С., советник — главный научный сотрудник Института законодательства и сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации, член Комитета ООН по ликвидации расовой дискриминации, д-р юрид. 
наук, проф.
Билкова В., преподаватель юридического факультета Карлова Университета 
в Праге, член Европейской комиссии за демократию через право (Венецианской 
комиссии Совета Европы), д-р права, д-р философии, доц.
Василевич Г. А., заведующий кафедрой конституционного права Белорусского государственного университета, чл.-корр. Национальной академии наук Беларуси, д-р юрид. наук, проф.
Ди Грегорио А., ординарный профессор сравнительного права Миланского 
университета, руководитель программы по политической науке и науке управления, д-р права
Капустин А. Я., научный руководитель Института законодательства и сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации, президент Российской ассоциации международного права, заместитель председателя Международного союза юристов, д-р юрид. наук, проф., засл. деятель науки 
Российской Федерации
Кашкин С. Ю., заведующий кафедрой интеграционного и европейского права Московского государственного юридического университета им. О. Е. Кутафина, д-р юрид. наук, проф.
Рогов И. И., заместитель исполнительного директора Фонда первого Президента Республики Казахстан, д-р юрид. наук, проф.
Туори К., профессор Университета Хельсинки, член Европейской комиссии 
за демократию через право (Венецианской комиссии Совета Европы), д-р права
Хассельбальк О., засл. профессор Университета города Орхус (Королевство 
Дания), лектор Стокгольмского университета, д-р права
Чиркин В. Е., главный научный сотрудник отдела сравнительного правоведения 
Института государства и права Российской академии наук, д-р юрид. наук, проф., 
засл. деятель науки Российской Федерации, засл. юрист Российской Федерации
Чиркин С. В., заведующий отделом научного обеспечения деятельности секретариата делегации Российской Федерации в Европейской комиссии за демократию через право (Венецианской комиссии Совета Европы) Института законодательства и сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации, профессор Всероссийской академии внешней торговли, канд. юрид. наук
Шильстейн Д., профессор, директор отдела исследований по уголовному праву Университета Париж 1 Пантеон-Сорбонна, чл.-корр. Международной академии 
сравнительного права, д-р права
Чурсина Т. И. (отв. секретарь), заведующая объединенной редакцией периодических научных изданий Института законодательства и сравнительного правоведения при Правительстве Российской Федерации

Журнал

Second issue 
(No. 75) 2019 
Since 2005

Certificate of registration
ПИ No. ФС77-57274  
on March 12, 2014

ISSN 1991-3222 (print)
ISSN 2587-9995 (online)

DOI 10.12737/issn.1991-3222

The magazine is included into:
the List of peer-reviewed journals 
recom mended by the Supreme 
Certification Commission under  
the Ministry of Edu ca tion and Science 
of the Russian Federation;
the Russian Science Citation Index.

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OF FOREIGN LEGISLATION 
AND COMPARATIVE LAW

EDITORIAL COUNCIL

T. Y. Khabrieva (editor-in-chief), director of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative 
Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, academician of the Russian 
Academy of Sciences, titular member of the International Academy of Comparative Law, 
member of the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission 
of the Council of Europe), doctor of legal sciences, professor, honored lawyer of the 
Russian Federation
A. I. Kovler (deputy editor-in-chief), head of the Center of foreign legislation and 
comparative law of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government 
of the Russian Federation, professor at the Lomonosov Moscow State University, former 
judge of the European Court of Human Rights (1999—2012), associate member of the 
International Academy of Comparative Law, doctor of legal sciences, honored lawyer of 
the Russian Federation
A. S. Avtonomov, counselor — chief research fellow of the Institute of Legislation and 
Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, member of the UN 
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, doctor of legal sciences, professor
V. Bilkova, lecturer at the Law Faculty of the Charles University in Prague, member 
of the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission of the 
Council of Europe), doctor of law, doctor of philosophy, associate professor
G. A. Vasilevich, head of the Department of constitutional law of the Belarusian State 
University, corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, 
doctor of legal sciences, professor
A. Di Gregorio, full professor of public comparative law at the University of Milan, 
head of study of master program in political science and government, doctor of law
A. Y. Kapustin, scientific supervisor of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law 
under the Government of the Russian Federation, president of the Russian Association 
of International Law, deputy chairman of the International Union of Lawyers, doctor of 
legal sciences, professor, honored scientist of the Russian Federation
S. Y. Kashkin, head of the Department of integration and european law of the Kutafin 
Moscow State Law University, doctor of legal sciences, professor
I. I. Rogov, deputy executive director of the Foundation of the first President of the 
Republic of Kazakhstan, doctor of legal sciences, professor
K. Tuori, professor at the University of Helsinki, member of the European Commission 
for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission of the Council of Europe), doctor of law
O. Hasselbalch, professor (em.) at the Aarhus University (the Kingdom of Denmark), 
reader at the Stockholm University, doctor of law
V. E. Chirkin, chief research fellow of the Institute of State and Law of the Russian 
Academy of Sciences, doctor of legal sciences, professor, honored lawyer of the Russian 
Federation, honored scientist of the Russian Federation
S. V. Chirkin, head of the Department for scientific support of the activity of the 
secretariat of the Russian Delegation in the European Commission for Democracy 
through Law (Venice Commission of the Council of Europe) of the Institute of Legislation 
and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, professor at the 
Russian Foreign Trade Academy, candidate of legal sciences
D. Chilstein, professor, head of the Department of criminal law research of the 
University Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, associate member of the International Academy 
of Comparative Law, doctor of law
T. I. Chursina (executive secretary), head of the Department of joint editorial office 
of scientific periodical publications of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law 
under the Government of the Russian Federation

Journal

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

ГОСУДАРСТВО И ПРАВО В СОВРЕМЕННОМ 
МИРЕ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ ТЕОРИИ И ИСТОРИИ
ХАССЕЛЬБАЛЬК O. Северная правовая семья: зарождение, становление, развитие (на англ. яз.) ..................................5

ЭНТИН М. Л., ЭНТИНА Е. Г., ТОРКУНОВА Е. А. Современные требования к национальной правовой системе ................................................................................... 11

КОНСТИТУЦИОННОЕ ПРАВО, 
КОНСТИТУЦИОННЫЙ СУДЕБНЫЙ ПРОЦЕСС, 
МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОЕ ПРАВО В СРАВНИТЕЛЬНОПРАВОВОЙ ПЕРСПЕКТИВЕ
ПЛАТОНОВ В. М. Федерализм как социальная основа 
государственного устройства ...................................................24

ЯКИМОВА Е. М., ЕФИМОВА Е. А. Совершенствование 
механизма судебной защиты прав и свобод человека и 
гражданина в Российской Федерации с учетом опыта Федеративной Республики Германия ...........................................29

САЛАМОВ Н. М. Конституционно-правовое регулирование государственного герба Азербайджанской Республики: проблемы и предложения ...................................................35

АДМИНИСТРАТИВНОЕ ПРАВО, ФИНАНСОВОЕ 
ПРАВО, ИНФОРМАЦИОННОЕ ПРАВО
АБЛАЕВА Э. Б. Признание недействительными не соответствующих законодательству актов (сравнительно-правовой анализ) .............................................................................39

ЛЕДНЕВА Ю. В. Конфликт интересов при реализации в 
России международных договоров об избежании двойного налогообложения ..............................................................49

МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ И ИНТЕГРАЦИОННОЕ 
ПРАВО. ЕВРОПЕЙСКОЕ ПРАВО
ДЕДОВ Д. И., ГАДЖИЕВ Х. И. Обзор практики Большой 
палаты Европейского суда по правам человека (ноябрь—
декабрь 2018 г.) ..........................................................................55

КИЕНКО Е. В. Международно-правовые основы сотрудничества Китая с арктическими государствами.....................64

ГРАЖДАНСКОЕ ПРАВО, 
ПРЕДПРИНИМАТЕЛЬСКОЕ ПРАВО, СЕМЕЙНОЕ 
ПРАВО, МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЕ ЧАСТНОЕ ПРАВО
КРАТЕНКО М. В. Страховая выплата в натуральной форме по договору автокаско: опыт правоприменения в России и странах системы общего права (сравнительно-правовое исследование) ..................................................................69

СОМОВА Е. В. Смарт-контракт в договорном праве .............79

КОМПАРАТИВИСТСКИЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ 
УГОЛОВНОГО ПРАВА, КРИМИНОЛОГИИ 
И УГОЛОВНО-ИСПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ПРАВА
ТРЕФИЛОВ А. А. Информатизация уголовного процесса Швейцарии ............................................................................87
ПЛОШКИНА Я. М. Подозрение в немецком уголовном 
процессе .....................................................................................93
СЕДЕЛКИНА В. В. Уголовно-процессуальные особенности борьбы с налоговыми преступлениями в Германии .......98
КУБАНЦЕВ С. П. Соотношение и соединение административной и уголовной ответственности за нарушение 
правил конкуренции ...............................................................104

ПРОТИВОДЕЙСТВИЕ КОРРУПЦИИ
ЧЕРЕПАНОВА Е. В. Антикоррупционная экспертиза как 
элемент правового мониторинга: сравнительно-правовое 
исследование ...........................................................................109

ЗЕМЕЛЬНОЕ, ПРИРОДОРЕСУРСНОЕ, 
ЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ, АГРАРНОЕ ПРАВО РОССИИ 
И ЗАРУБЕЖНЫХ СТРАН
АВХАДЕЕВ В. Р. Современные аспекты правового регулирования промысла морских живых ресурсов Арктики: международные договоры и законодательство Российской Федерации .................................................................116

ТРУДОВОЕ ПРАВО, ПРАВО СОЦИАЛЬНОГО 
ОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ
БОРОДИНА Е. Н. Гарантии и компенсации для работников, осуществляющих трудовую деятельность  
в разъездах, в пути и в полевых условиях ............................125
СОБЫТИЯ ЮРИДИЧЕСКОЙ ЖИЗНИ
ФОКИН Е. А. Венецианская комиссия о проблемах правосудия в современном мире: исследования продолжаются .......130
ТЕРНОВАЯ О. А., СЕМЫКИНА О. И. Репрессивные 
санкции (уголовные или административные) в отношении юридических лиц против других санкций (санкции 
в отношении физических лиц или гражданско-правовые 
санкции): итоги франко-российского семинара ...................137
МУРАТОВА О. В., ЩУКИН А. И. Проблемы признания и 
приведения в исполнение решений иностранных судов и 
иностранных арбитражных (третейских) решений .............140

МОНИТОРИНГ ЗАКОНОДАТЕЛЬСТВА 
ИНОСТРАННЫХ ГОСУДАРСТВ  ...............................146

НОВЫЕ КНИГИ ИНСТИТУТА 
ЗАКОНОДАТЕЛЬСТВА И СРАВНИТЕЛЬНОГО 
ПРАВОВЕДЕНИЯ ПРИ ПРАВИТЕЛЬСТВЕ РФ  ....149

CONTENTS

STATE AND LAW IN MODERN WORLD:  
PROBLEMS OF THEORY AND HISTORY

Ole HASSELBALCH. Nordic Legal System: Roots, Strength, 
Trends ............................................................................................5

M. L. ENTIN, E. G. ENTINA, E. A. TORKUNOVA. Modern 
Requirements to the National Legal System ...............................11

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL 
LITIGATION, MUNICIPAL LAW IN COMPARATIVE 
LEGAL PERSPECTIVE

V. M. PLATONOV. On Some Aspects of Federal Society as 
Social Basis of a State System  ...................................................24

E. M. YAKIMOVA, E. A. EFIMOVA. Improvement  
of the Mechanism of Judicial Protection of the Rights 
and Freedoms of the Person and Citizen in the Russian 
Federation Taking into Account Experience of the Federal 
Republic of Germany  .............................................................29

N. M. SALAMOV. Constitutional and Legal Regulation of the 
State Emblem of the Republic of Azerbaijan: Problems and 
Proposals  ....................................................................................35

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW, FINANCIAL LAW, 
INFORMATION LAW

E. B. ABLAEVA. Invalidation of Non-Compliant Legislation 
Acts (Comparative Legal Analysis) ............................................39

Yu. V. LEDNEVA. Conflict of Interest in the Implementation 
of Double Taxation Treaties in Russia ........................................49

INTERNATIONAL AND INTEGRATION LAW

D. I. DEDOV, Kh. I. HAJIYEV. Overview of the Practice  
of the ECHR's Grand Chamber (November—December, 2018) .....55

E. V. KIENKO. International Legal Framework for Cooperation 
of China with Arctic States  ........................................................64

CIVIL LAW, ENTREPRENEURIAL LAW, FAMILY 
LAW, PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW

M. V. KRATENKO. Mod Insurance Settlement in Kind: 
Russian and Common Law States’ Law Enforcement 
Experience (Comparative Research)  ..........................................69

E. V. SOMOVA. Smart Contract in Contract Law  ......................79

COMPARATIVE RESEARCHES  
OF CRIMINAL LAW, CRIMINOLOGY  
AND CRIMINAL EXECUTIVE LAW
A. A. TREFILOV. Informatization of the Criminal Process  
of Switzerland  ............................................................................87
Ya. M. PLOSHKINA.Suspicion in the German Criminal Process  ...93
V. V. SEDELKINA. Criminal Procedural Features of the 
Struggle With Tax Crimes in Germany  ......................................98
S. P. KUBANTSEV. Ratio and Connection of Administrative 
and Criminal Liability for Violation of Competition Rules  .....104

COUNTERING CORRUPTION
E. V. CHEREPANOVA. Anti-Corruption Expertise as an 
Element of Legal Monitoring: Comparative Legal Research  ....109

LAND, NATURAL RESOURCES, ECOLOGICAL, 
AGRARIAN LAW OF RUSSIA AND FOREIGN 
COUNTRIES
V. R. AVKHADEEV. Modern Aspects of Legal Regulation 
of the Marine Living Resources Harvesting in the Arctic: 
International Agreements and Russian Legislation  ..................116

LABOR LAW AND SOCIAL WELFARE LAW
E. N. BORODINA. Guarantees and Compensation for People  
Working on the Road, in Transit and in the Field .....................125

LEGAL EVENTS
E. A. FOKIN. Venice Commission on the Problems of Justice 
in the Modern World: Research Continues  ..............................130

O. A. TERNOVAYA, O. I. SEMYKINA. Repressive Sanctions 
(Criminal or Administrative) in Respect of Legal Entities 
Against Other Sanctions (Sanctions Against Individuals  
or Civil Penalties): Results of the Franco-Russian Seminar .....137

O. V. MURATOVA, A. I. SHCHUKIN. Problems of Recognition 
and Enforcement of Foreign Courts' Decisions and Foreign 
Arbitration Decisions ................................................................140

MONITORING OF THE FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
LEGISLATION  ................................................................... 146

NEW BOOKS OF THE INSTITUTE  
OF LEGISLATION AND COMPARATIVE LAW  
UNDER THE GOVERNMENT  

OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION  .................................... 149

СЕВЕРНАЯ ПРАВОВАЯ СЕмЬЯ: ЗАРОЖДЕНИЕ, СТАНОВЛЕНИЕ, 
РАЗВИТИЕ

ХАССЕЛЬБАЛЬК Оле, заслуженный профессор Института права юридического факультета Университета города 
Орхус, почетный доктор права
Королевство Дания, г. Орхус
E-mail: ole.hasselbalch@mail.dk

В статье рассматриваются различные аспекты зарождения, становления и развития северной правовой семьи (северного права), которая является совокупностью правовых систем государств, расположенных на Скандинавском полуострове. Анализируются концептуальные основы, особенности и преимущества этой правовой семьи по сравнению 
с другими. Автор указывает на исторические условия и предпосылки появления северной правовой семьи и определяет периодизацию процесса ее укрепления, выделяя пять стадий. По мнению автора, северная правовая семья относится к правовым семьям традиционного типа и существенно отличается от романо-германской и англосаксонской (англо-американской) правовых семей, обладая уникальными правовыми характеристиками. В статье описывается законодательный процесс в скандинавских государствах, порядок принятия актов парламента, анализируются правоприменительная практика и использование правового обычая как источника права. Особое внимание уделяется роли судов 
и судей в нормотворческом процессе, их влиянию на формирование правовых систем и законодательства в североевропейских странах. В частности, отмечается наличие конфликта между судьями и парламентариями, заключающегося в том, что судьи не всегда удовлетворены качеством актов парламента, на основании которых иногда затруднительно справедливо разрешить дело в суде. Автор рассматривает функционирование публично-правовых и частноправовых институтов в системе регулирования общественных отношений, наряду с этим уделяя внимание вопросам регулирования общественных отношений в тех сферах общественной жизни, которые не охватываются актами парламента и 
где возможно договорное регулирование в межличностных отношениях и регулирование деятельности общественных 
организаций на основе саморегулирования. Рассматривается проблема правовой защиты индивидов.
Ключевые слова: северная правовая семья, право, закон, законодательный процесс, акты парламента, обычай, практика, судья, традиция.

NORDIC LEGAL SYSTEM: ROOTS, STRENGTH, TRENDS 

Ole HASSELBALCH, professor (em.) at the Aarhus University (the Kingdom of Denmark), doctor of law
Nordre Ringgade 1, 8000 Aarhus C
E-mail: ole.hasselbalch@mail.dk

In this article different aspects of rooting, strengthening and trends of the Nordic Legal System (Nordic Law) are discussed. The 
Nordic Law is considered to be a sum of the legal systems of the countries, which are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Apart 
of it the concept principles, particularities and advantages of this legal system are analyzed in comparison with the others. The author 
points the historical background and conditions of this legal system’s appearing and defines the periodization of this legal system 
strengthening process. He lights out five stages of the mentioned process. Besides this and according to the author’s viewpoint 
the Nordic Legal System should be characterized as the one of the traditional type and it differs substantially if it is compared to 
the Roman-Germanic or to the Anglo-Saxon (Anglo-American) legal systems, having the unique legal dimensions. Further in the 
article the law — making process, the order of parliamentary acts adopting, the laws using practice and handling the custom as a 
source of law in the Scandinavian countries are described and analyzed. Special attention is paid to the role of courts and judges 
in the law-making process, their influence on the formation of legal systems and legislation in the Nordic countries. In particular, 
the article notes the existence of a conflict between judges and parliamentarians. It lies in the fact that judges are not always 
satisfied with the quality of acts of Parliament, on the basis of which it is not always possible to fairly resolve the case in court. In 
addition, the author considers the functioning of public and private law institutions in the system of regulation of public relations. 
At the same time, the author pays the necessary attention to the regulation of social relations in those areas of public life that are 
not covered by acts of Parliament and in which contractual regulation in interpersonal relations and regulation of the activities 
of public organizations on the basis of self-regulation are possible. The problem of legal protection of individuals is considered.
Keywords: Nordic Legal System, law, legal act, law-making process, parliamentary acts, custom, practice, judge, tradition.

DOI: 10.12737/art.2019.2.1

ГОСУДАРСТВО И ПРАВО  
В СОВРЕМЕННОМ МИРЕ:  
ПРОБЛЕМы ТЕОРИИ И ИСТОРИИ

Журнал зарубежного законодательства и сравнительного правоведения № 2 — 2019
6
I

n 2017 I delivered a lecture here in Moscow on the 
Nordic law family. I compared it to other legal systems 
and I told about the unification efforts between the 
Nordic countries1. This time I will dig a little deeper into 
the substance matter of Nordic law and how it functions 
(below part I). Additionally I will make some comment 
on the challenges facing us today (below part II).
Part I. Nordic Law2
Historical Development
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (including Finland) 
presumably emerged as unified kingdoms in the 7th to the 
9th century. Before that the local areas were more or less 
independent administratively as well as legally — each 
of them is believed to have been controlled by “small” 
kings. In spite of that, social organization and legal 
developments within Scandinavia (defined not only as 
the Scandinavian peninsula but including also Denmark, 
Iceland, Greenland — colonized from approx 870 and 
onwards — and part of Finland) followed similar lines 
although with some discrepancies. On this basis a number 
of separate legal systems governing larger areas came 
into existence.
Such laws were originally not written down. They had 
presumably developed on the basis of custom and practice 
and were administered by the so-called things (“ting”). 
These things were regular meetings of all free men on a 
local, provincial, and, in Iceland, national basis. They were 
so to speak the basis-units not only of government (the 
things elected royal nominees) but also of law. Thus they 
legislated at all levels and settled legal disputes. They were 
presided over by the local chieftain or by a so-called law 
speaker (“lovsigemand”/“løgmaður”/laghmaþer/lagmann/
laamanni) — a man who was extraordinarily learned in 
the unrecorded law and had the special task of reciting it to 
the thing). The things preserved this central role in society 
even up to the 13th and 14th centuries.
Between the 11th and 13th centuries the unwritten, 
customary law was recorded in writing in the 
form of private compilations or — occasionally — 
by instructions from the king. Examples are the 
Norwegian Gulathing’s Law (written in the 11th 

1   See: The Nordic Legal Family and Unification of Laws. 
Journal of Foreign Legislation and Comparative Law, 2017, no. 1, 
pp. 43—46. DOI: 10.12737/24287.
2   For more details, see: Dahl, Melchior Rehof and Tamm. Danish 
Law in a European Perspective. GadJura 1996; Kimmo Nuotio, 
Sakari Melander, Merita Huomo-Kettunen (eds.). Introduction to 
Finnish Law and Finnish Legal Culture. Forum Juris, Helsinki, 
2012. In general see: Jaakko Husa, Kimmo Nuotio and Heikki 
Pihlajamäki. Nordic Law — Between Tradition and Dynamism. 
Intersentia, 2007; Per Hagelien and Marie Vonen. The Norwegian 
Legal System. Advokatfirmaet Schjødt AS, 1994; Michael Bogdan 
(ed.). Swedish Legal System. Norsteds Juridik, 2010; Laura Carlson. 
The Fundamentals of Swedish Law, Studentlitteratur. 2nd ed. 2012. 
In general Kluwer Law International, International Encyclopaedia 
of Laws (Country by country and subject by subject reports).

century); the Danish Law of Jutland (1241); and the 
Swedish laws of Uppland (1296) and Götaland (early 
13th century).
Subject Matter of the Compilations
The early laws or codes dealt with all matters relevant 
to society: matrimony, inheritance, property, contract, 
constitutional and administrative issues, crime and 
procedural law. However, ecclesiastical (church) law was 
treated separately.
In general the written codes did not constitute new 
law but were compilations of already valid, customary 
law. Basically influence from foreign law was 
negligible. However, in some respects a new approach 
was introduced in the codes. In particular blood feuds 
were not accepted any more — instead detailed tariffs 
for manslaughter and offenses against the body were 
set up. For instance King Magnus’ Swedish code (1350) 
abolished private vengeance, and prescribed that the 
king’s officials should initiate criminal proceedings and 
provide for the punishment of wrongdoers. Another new 
trend was that some provisions were introduced to assist 
paupers and helpless people.
Later Developments
Norway and Denmark were united under a common 
king (Olaf IV) in 1380, but this did not affect their legal 
systems. Instead, the two countries retained their separate 
laws. But until king Frederick III obtained sovereign 
power (in 1660) supplementary laws were issued by 
the changing kings in conjunction with an assembly of 
nobles.
However, a vital step was taken in the late 17th century 
as part of a reorganization of the Kingdom after the 
Swedish wars at that time. Thus king Christian V of 
Denmark and Norway organized two comprehensive 
codifications of laws: the Danish Law (1683) and the 
Norwegian Law (1687).
The two new codes left out prescriptions which had 
over the years become obsolete. But apart from the fact 
that even if the compilations on national level in some 
respects had to make choices between differing solutions 
in previous laws in their very core they were based on 
the existing laws of the two countries. Still influence of 
German, Roman, and Canon law was minimal. And as 
in the earlier codes, public as well as private law was 
included.
The new codifications were technically excellent — 
drafted in an easy, readable way. Moreover, by and large 
they were mirroring a wish also to respect individuals’ 
rights and equality before the law. The provisions of 
criminal law were also humane compared with legislation 
in other European countries.
In Sweden an original code, issued by King 
Christopher (1442), was revised in an edition which was 
confirmed by Charles IX (1608). Later on, under influence 
of the Danish-Norwegian example, a royal commission 
drafted a new, comprehensive code “the Law of 1734”, 
which was promulgated by the king.

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Finland had been annexed by Sweden in the 13th 
century and therefore made subject to Swedish law. In 
consequence, Finland was also encompassed by the 
Swedish code of 1734 (known in Finland as “Law of the 
Realm of Finland”).
Modern Law
The old codes and supplementary unwritten custom 
and practice form basis of modern Scandinavian law. 
The Swedish law of 1734 was conserved as a formal 
framework. And in Denmark some provisions of Danish 
Law are still the formally valid basis of settling legal 
disputes even today. New, all-embracing codes have not 
been made, but important parts of public and private law 
have been codified in individual Acts of Parliament.
Moreover, since 1872 the Scandinavian countries have 
organized a formal legislative cooperation. So today to a 
considerable degree the Nordic states (including Iceland 
and Finland) have passed a uniform legislation in respect 
to i.a. contracts and commerce, family and the person.
The modern legal systems in the Scandinavian 
countries have preserved their national character, even if 
they have adopted some concepts of civil law from abroad 
(mainly German and French law). However, commercial 
law and the laws of shipping and of companies conform 
more or less to common European patterns. Also social 
welfare legislation has strong international connections. 
In addition, the Scandinavian legal systems are now 
heavily influenced by EU-law.
General Features
Law (or religion in its place) and organisation is the 
very core of any society. The Scandinavian countries 
have traditionally been well organised and they are 
based upon the rule of law. This concept was also the 
stepping stone for the Norman invasion in England and 
the reorganisation in that country after 1066. So it is no 
wonder that the Russians decided that a Viking (Rurik) 
should be their ruler.
As for law, it could be said that in general Scandinavian 
law of today is down to earth and close to life — much 
less dogmatic than other European legal systems. 
Rules and principles evolved in practice as confirmed 
by the courts as valid law play an important role. Thus 
much of the law is formulated by judges on the basis of 
1) existing legislation (Acts of Parliaments) and 2) custom 
and practice which has been accepted as valid law by 
the Parliaments by their passivity to the existing order 
represented by customary law. Therefore Nordic law is 
traditionally well adapted to the practical needs.
The basis of law — whatever form it takes — is 
tradition and common thinking among citizens in the 
country in question. These elements are formed by 
history and physical conditions — such as natural assets, 
geographical location and imminent external or internal 
threats. It also plays a major role whether the society in 
question is small or big: for geographical reasons a big 
country cannot adapt to exactly the same model as a 
small one. I.a. a small population is more likely to form a 

society based not upon formal legal rules but on trust and 
confidence — the reason being that it would be difficult 
to mistreat fellow citizens and expect it to go unnoticed. 
Therefore it is hazardous to try to transplant uncritically 
a model for society and its legislation from one country 
to another. In other words: don’t take what I tell you now 
as a golden formula for the creation of a society as the 
ones in Scandinavia.
The Concept
The very core of Nordic law as it stands today is the 
fact that for long our countries have been based upon the 
democratic model. The modern Norwegian constitution 
“Eidsvoll-forfatningen”, even dates from 1814. Denmark 
has been a constitutional democracy since 1849. The first 
what might be called modern Swedish constitution dates 
back to 1809 (with supplements from 1810).
Today the concept of the constitutional basis as it has 
developed is based upon 5 pillars:
1) The principle of free speech — meaning allowing 
everybody to be heard and all facts and arguments to be 
presented to the people as well as to the immediate lawmakers (the parliaments).
2) Law-making in accordance with the wishes of the 
people crystallized either by the individuals involved in 
the form of private agreements or by the parliaments by 
Acts of Parliament (legislation/statutes) based on free 
public debate on the subject matter of legislation.
3) An incorrupt Government and public administration 
and court system to administer the body of laws made 
on this basis.
4) A trustworthy and independent court system to 
apply to existing law in case of disputes.
5) Rights of the Individual.
The individual person/citizen plays a major role in 
legal thinking. Thus it is assumed that the individual can 
be entrusted with the role of participating in exercising 
governing of the State. He is regarded as fully capable 
of performing this role — and regarded as personally 
responsible enough not to abuse his power in a way which 
will seriously infringe on his fellow citizens. Therefore 
there is no need for laws as to what the individual should 
do and not do or which opinions, ideology or religion 
he should worship. Only a rudimentary framework of 
basic rules is assumed to be necessary in order to prevent 
conflicts between members of society, and within this 
framework citizens do as they please. In other words: 
the “private sphere” is wide and the integrity of the 
individual is a highly prized good.
Therefore the individual is granted privileges:
— He has the right to participate in the law-making 
process by electing representatives for Parliament (and 
the local community boards as well).
— He has the opportunity to interfere in Parliament’s 
law-making process by launching arguments and 
information to his elected representatives as well as to the 
press and other medias (meetings, associations formed 
for the purpose etc.).

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8

— He and his contractual partners have wide-ranging 
opportunities to set up rules for themselves not only 
on substance matters, but also on procedures for the 
settlement of disputes.
— He is protected by a core of inderogable law — 
the Constitution, Acts of Parliament and unwritten 
mandatory or non-mandatory legal principles.
— Accordingly, he has the right to have disputes of a 
legal nature (i.e. disputes on what is already valid law) 
solved by a judicial body in the form of a normal Court 
of Justice or a private arbitration court.
— He could not legally be deprived of his fundamental 
rights as an individual: his right to speak up, his right 
to earn a living, his right to fair and equal treatment by 
public authorities and a number of additional rights.
Accordingly, the feeding line of the Parliament 
and therefore also in law-making is public debate. It 
is regarded essential that any Scandinavian can rise 
a problem in this debate — or through a Member of 
Parliament — thereby putting on the political agenda 
issues which he finds apt for new legislation. This is a key 
point since it is essential that all aspects of a matter are 
taken into consideration before a final decision is taken 
in Parliament.
Thus, according to this concept of how society should 
work there is not — and should not be — a general, 
comprehensive and ever-lasting formula in the form of 
a religion or a political idea according to which human 
societies should abide. Instead consideration should 
always be taken as to what could be found by concrete 
investigation of the problems occurring. And then the 
final evaluation of what is brought forward by that 
investigation should be made by the citizens within the 
democratic system, which gives everyone the opportunity 
to be heard and to present his/her opinions and version 
of the facts. In other words empery (“fact-finding”) 
should be in the center of the law-making process and 
not speculation, the relevant facts should be established 
by the methods, which according to human experience, 
are best suited to produce verifiable knowledge, and the 
outcome should be subjected to open, public debate.
Law-making
Law-making in Scandinavia takes place in two ways:
Acts of Parliament
One way is to make an Act of Parliament.
Such Acts form the basis of administrative services 
or organs. But Acts of Parliament are also the usual way 
to create valid law between private and/or public parties. 
Such Acts could be mandatory (inderogable), meaning 
that an agreement in contradiction to the Act is null 
and void, or they might be non-mandatory (derogable), 
meaning that the Act only applies if the parties involved 
have not agreed otherwise.
Some Acts deal with the subject matter in details, 
others are rather lapidary. The reason could be that there 
is not time for discussions in Parliament on all issues 
involved, and some issues might also be of a purely 

technical nature so that Parliamentarians are unable to 
make a reasoned decision. In such cases, the Act might 
open up for supplementary legislation (Orders) set up by 
the government within the mandate (general principles) 
given in the Act.
In Scandinavia the Parliament(s) are basically 
omnipotent, meaning that they are entitled to create 
new laws on any matter they find relevant. However, 
an important limit to this is the Constitution itself, 
which is based upon the idea that a Parliament should 
only be allowed to legislate on general issues. In other 
words, Parliaments are not permitted to solve concrete 
legal conflicts between two parties by way of an Act. 
Such legislation would be null and void. Moreover, Acts 
should be kept within the field apt for regulation by law. 
Resolutions on matters beyond what is necessary in order 
to make the parliamentary procedures work properly are 
not part of the parliamentary procedure — apart form 
so-called “dagsordener” (i.e. agendas), expressing that 
the majority is unpleased with the Government so that 
the Prime Minister will have to step down. Examples: 
Penalisation of Holocaust denial or a resolution saying 
that the Turks committed genocide on the Armenians in 
the 1920s would be regarded as bad parliamentary habit, 
possibly even unconstitutional, since only historians 
could say what actually took place and the lawful purpose 
of an Act of Parliament cannot state what has happened 
in history.
Custom and practice
If no legislation exists regulating a disputed matter, 
the parties involved might have considered it beforehand 
and made an agreement between themselves, se below. 
However, a lot of issues occur, which are not solved by 
Acts of Parliament and not considered by the parties 
involved either. In such cases “sædvanen” (custom 
and practice) will reign. This means that valid law 
corresponds to what has traditionally been regarded as 
valid law. The constitutional basis is that if Parliament 
does not make a decision upon a matter in the form of an 
Act, the legal assumption will be that custom and practice 
has been rubberstamped by Parliament as valid law.
Such custom and practice might even be regarded 
mandatory. And it might also be binding upon public 
authorities and workplaces. For example mandatory 
customary law governed public administration long before 
Denmark had a formal Act on Public Administration. 
Another binding principle is the principle of fair and 
equal treatment of the citizens which form a core of 
unwritten public law. Other examples: private parties 
could not legally enter into any contract interfering in 
the one party’s private life, political freedom or right to 
earn a living. Moreover, even if the majority of members 
in private associations in principle have in their power 
to decide what the association has to do, an unwritten 
minority protection applies, which makes it impossible 
for that majority to rule out any consideration for the 
minority.

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9

Private Law-making
Another way to create law is the ”leave-it-as-it-is”solution (laissez-faire), meaning that Parliament leaves 
it to the parties involved to decide for themselves by 
agreement what should be valid law between them. 
Agreements between parties in need of a mutual 
regulation of their relationship are an important tool in 
the organisation of society.
Such agreements — which might be in writing, oral 
or even tacit (meaning unspoken), see below — are tools 
not only to settle actual or possible disputes between 
private and public parties. By agreement, parties might 
also decide to cooperate on a long-term basis according 
to agreed standing rules to play by.
A number of individuals may also agree on forming a 
private association in order to handle matters which are 
beyond an individual’s capability to handle by himself. 
And associations organised according to a formal rulebook, a body to represent the organisation, fixed rules 
on how to run the economy etc. form “legal persons” 
which may take on rights and duties in relation to other 
legal or physical persons. One example is the unions and 
employers’ organisations, others are the professional 
organisations which represent the different trades in 
business matters, the political parties and all sorts of 
sports and hobby associations.
In Denmark, Norway and Sweden — Finland has 
an Act of Parliament on this — it is entirely up to the 
parties themselves to decide the structure of such an 
collective body formed by their agreement. But it is 
also possible to cooperate within special models set up 
by legislation (such as the Acts on Private and Public 
Limited Companies)
However, not only formal agreements play a role. 
In Scandinavia “trust” is a dominant factor in human 
relations and it has been so at least since the VikingAge. The reason might be that we are comparatively 
small countries, so no-one would go unobserved if he 
was untrustworthy. The consequence is that unless you 
live up to the customary rules of society or obligations 
you have expressly or by your behavior entered into, you 
will soon be marginalized by your fellow citizens and 
have the reputation of an unreliable person. This will give 
you a lot of problems.
The underlying trust between citizens forms the basis 
of another feature of Nordic law: an agreement need not 
be written down on paper in order to be binding upon 
the parties. Unless statutory law prescribes otherwise, 
agreements need not even fulfill any formal demands at 
all in order to be binding upon the parties.
So an agreement — or a clause of a written agreement — 
need not even be express meaning expressed in words or 
signs constituting a meaning. Even tacit agreements and 
clauses are valid. Thus, if one party behaves in a way 
which gives the other party a “justified impression” of 
what the legal position is between the two, that behavior 
constitutes a binding agreement between them.

This means that a legal obligation may also materialise 
itself solely in the behaviour of one party in relation 
to another. An example: if two parties (for example 
trading partners) for a long time have played by certain 
rules, courts may rule that there is a tacit agreement 
corresponding to those rules so that the one party 
may not suddenly deviate from the (customary) rule 
between them. And if a party tells the other party how 
he understands a suggested rule of the written agreement, 
the interpretation presented by the first party will be the 
one which courts find binding upon them if the other 
party does not protest immediately.
In accordance with this: the (proved) mutual intent 
of the parties to an agreement is more important to the 
interpretation of an agreement than the written text.
All this eases legal transactions since there is no need 
for extensive texts when you enter into an agreement. 
With a lack of words the assumption will simply be 
that the parties’ intention was to resort to custom and 
practice as for the rest. Correspondingly a contract will 
be interpreted according to custom and practice if its 
wording is unclear.
It is difficult to explain this system of this “unspoken” 
law-making to foreigners who are used to the idea that 
parties must use written contracts. However, our system 
widely facilitates trade and makes human relations go 
more easily.
This idea might also be the reason why legislator — 
the Parliaments and before that the King and local things 
has traditionally not interfered in more than was urgently 
necessary.
The private law-making system even evolved in 
such a way so that parties could opt to have their legal 
disputes solved by private arbitration court put up 
by themselves instead of launching a lawsuit at the 
ordinary courts. Such arbitration courts substitute the 
normal court system — under the precondition that 
the final ruling will be in the hands of independent 
judges hired for the case and who act according to 
procedural rules which create legal security that the 
ruling is based upon fair and equal treatment of both 
parties.
Law-making by judges?
In many countries another legislator is involved too, 
namely the courts.
In principle the task of the Scandinavian Courts and 
their independent, highly skilled judges is to decide in 
their rulings how to apply existing, valid law in case 
of individual disputes. This means that Courts are not 
allowed to make a ruling beyond what has been decided 
in Parliament either by way of making an Act or by 
accepting custom and practice as valid law.
According to this principle the task of the Courts is only
1) to establish what should be regarded as the facts 
(what are the factual circumstances) of the individual 
case established by the proofs of the parties presented 
to the court, and

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2) to apply already valid law (Acts of Parliament and 
subsidiary legislation, agreements of the parties and 
custom and practice) on this fact.
Naturally cases occur where an Act of Parliament is 
not formulated in a way which clearly solves the dispute. 
The agreements of the parties themselves might also be 
unclear or incomplete. And “custom and practice” is not 
easily and objectively readable. This leaves room for the 
judges to decide what should be the outcome of a lawsuit 

and thereby what valid law is in the case. However, 
judges’ hands are tied by the intentions of the legislator 
(the Parliament) which can be read in parliamentary 
preparatory works and in previous Court-rulings showing 
what valid custom and practice which has been accepted 
by the Parliament actually is. In contrast a judge would 
not be allowed to make new law himself since this 
would be an illegal inference with the competence of the 
Parliament.

REFERENCES

Dahl, Melchior Rehof and Tamm. Danish Law in a European Perspective. GadJura, 1996.
Jaakko Husa, Kimmo Nuotio and Heikki Pihlajamäki. Nordic Law — Between Tradition and Dynamism. Intersentia, 2007.
Kimmo Nuotio, Sakari Melander, Merita Huomo-Kettunen (eds.). Introduction to Finnish Law and Finnish Legal Culture. Forum Juris, 
Helsinki, 2012.
Laura Carlson. The Fundamentals of Swedish Law, Studentlitteratur. 2nd ed. 2012.
Michael Bogdan (ed.). Swedish Legal System. Norsteds Juridik, 2010.
Per Hagelien and Marie Vonen. The Norwegian Legal System. Advokatfirmaet Schjødt AS, 1994.
The Nordic Legal Family and Unification of Laws. Journal of Foreign Legislation and Comparative Law, 2017, no. 1, pp. 43—46. 
DOI: 10.12737/24287.

Государство и право в современном мире: проблемы теории и истории
11

СОВРЕмЕННЫЕ ТРЕБОВАНИЯ  
К НАЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ ПРАВОВОЙ СИСТЕмЕ

ЭНТИН марк Львович, заведующий кафедрой европейского права Московского государственного института международных отношений (Университета) МИД России, профессор-исследователь Балтийского федерального университета им. И. Канта, профессор, доктор юридических наук
119454, Россия, г. Москва, просп. Вернадского, 76
E-mail: entinmark@gmail.com

ЭНТИНА Екатерина Геннадьевна, доцент Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики», старший научный сотрудник Института Европы Российской академии наук, кандидат политических наук
119017, Россия, г. Москва, ул. Малая Ордынка, 17
E-mail: e.entina@hse.ru

ТОРКУНОВА Екатерина Анатольевна, доцент кафедры европейского права Московского государственного института международных отношений (Университета) МИД России, кандидат юридических наук
119454, Россия, г. Москва, просп. Вернадского, 76
E-mail: etorkunova@hotmail.com

В статье подробно анализируются новейшие тенденции в эволюции правовой системы Российской Федерации. Раскрываются их специфика, отличительные черты, корреляция с изменениями внешней среды — системы международных отношений, которые нельзя не учитывать при конструировании и осуществлении внешней политики и государственно-правового строительства. Показано, что коррекция правовой системы Российской Федерации давно назрела 
в том, что касается как защиты от геополитических рисков и силового давления со стороны других ведущих мировых 
игроков — США и ЕС, так и модернизации национального права и правоприменения с учетом императивов очередного витка научно-технической революции и потребностей наращивания международной конкурентоспособности. Доказывается, что проводимая коррекция не должна носить сумбурный, фрагментарный, спорадический характер. Ее необходимо сделать прагматичной и сбалансированной. Она должна обеспечить правовую безопасность страны и в то же 
время способствовать тому, чтобы Россия эффективно встраивалась в усложняющуюся ткань трансрегионального сотрудничества и могла взять на себя роль нормативного лидера в обустройстве ЕАЭС и формировании всеобъемлющего большого евразийского партнерства.
Ключевые слова: правовая система России, сближение и гармонизация, рецепция норм права Еваропейского Союза, защита внутреннего правопорядка, правовая безопасность, соотношение внутреннего, наднационального и международного права.

MODERN REQUIREMENTS TO THE NATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM

M. L. ENTIN, head of the Department of European law of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (University) 
of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, research professor at the Kant Baltic Federal University, professor, 
doctor of legal sciences
76, Vernadskiy ave., Moscow, Russia, 119454
E-mail: entinmark@gmail.com

E. G. ENTINA, associate professor at the National Research University “Higher School of Economics”, senior research fellow 
of the Institute of Europe of the Russian Academy of Sciences, candidate of political sciences
17, Malaya Ordynka st., Moscow, Russia, 119017
E-mail: e.entina@hse.ru

E. A. TORKUNOVA, associate professor at the Department of European law of the Moscow State Institute of International 
Relations (University) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, candidate of legal sciences
76, Vernadskiy ave., Moscow, Russia, 119454
E-mail: etorkunova@hotmail.com

The article analyzes in detail the latest trends in the evolution of the legal system of the Russian Federation. The author 
reveals their specificity, distinctive features, correlation with changes in the external environment — the system of international 
relations, which cannot be ignored in the design and implementation of foreign policy and state-legal construction. It is shown 
that the correction of the legal system of the Russian Federation is long overdue: for the protection against geopolitical risks and 
power pressure from other leading world players — the US and the EU, as well as for the modernization of national law and law 
enforcement, taking into account the imperatives of the next round of the scientific and technological revolution and the needs of 
increasing international competitiveness. It is proved that the correction should not be chaotic, fragmentary, sporadic. It must be 
done pragmatic and balanced. It should ensure the legal security of the country and at the same time contribute to ensuring that 

Журнал зарубежного законодательства и сравнительного правоведения № 2 — 2019
12

Russia is effectively integrated into the growing fabric of TRANS-regional cooperation and can take the role of a normative leader 
in the arrangement of the EAU and the formation of the Comprehensive Large Eurasian Partnership.
Keywords: legal system of Russia, rapprochement and harmonization, reception of norms of law of the European Union, 
protection of internal law, legal security, the ratio of domestic, supranational and international law.

DOI: 10.12737/art.2019.2.2
В 

царские времена российская интеллигенция 
и аристократия, привыкшая хотя бы полсезона в году жить на Западе — в Париже, Берлине, Риме и других столицах, люто его, этот Запад, 
ненавидела. Не могла согласиться со свойственным 
ему нарциссизмом и пренебрежением к остальным. 
Обижалась на манеру обо всем судить свысока, ничем не обоснованную заносчивость, неспособность 
прислушиваться к чужому мнению и воспринимать 
его, а порой даже на откровенную надменность (совсем как сейчас)1.
Актуальность и востребованность воззрений 
младоевразийцев. Из этого чувства несправедливости и неудовлетворенности российские философы и 
мыслители того времени почерпнули для себя дополнительные аргументы в пользу разрабатывавшихся 
ими концепций несостоятельности и порочности идей 
линейного исторического развития (отстаивавшихся 
классической немецкой философией) и схем догоняющего развития. В соответствии с ними высших, стоящих над другими цивилизаций, даже если они временно захватили господствующие позиции в мире, нет 
и быть не может — развитие нелинейно2.
А догоняющее развитие — всегда тупик. Несистемное заимствование чужих правовых и институциональных решений не позволит преодолеть отставание. Системное заимствование приведет к утрате 
самобытности и всех прежних цивилизационных ха
1   См.: Данилевский Н. Я. Россия и Европа. СПб., 1869. URL: 
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Russia_and_Europe.
djvu?uselang=ru; http://www.vehi.net/danilevsky/rossiya/index.
html.
2   «Одураченные романогерманцами “интеллигенты”нероманогерманских народов должны понять свою ошибку, — 
писал князь Н. С. Трубецкой в одной из первых работ, заложивших теоретический фундамент евразийства. — Они должны понять, что та культура, которую им поднесли под видом 
общечеловеческой цивилизации, на самом деле, есть культура 
лишь определенной этнической группы романских и германских народов. Это прозрение, разумеется, должно значительно изменить их отношение к культуре собственного народа 
и заставить их призадуматься над тем, правы ли они, стараясь, во имя каких-то “общечеловеческих” (а на самом деле, 
романогерманских, т. е. иностранных) идеалов, навязывать 
своему народу чужую культуру и искоренять в нем черты 
национальной самобытности. Решить этот вопрос они могут 
лишь после зрелого и логического обследования притязаний 
романогерманцев на звание “цивилизованного человечества” 
(Трубецкой Н. С. Европа и человечество. София, 1920. URL: 
http://gumilevica.kulichki.net/TNS/tns03.htm).

рактеристик. Эти воззрения впоследствии послужили основой и одним из слагаемых российского евразийства. В современных условиях они снова востребованы.
Встав на путь спонтанной, плохо продуманной 
и подготовленной антисоциалистической революции вместо предлагавшегося варианта постепенной 
конвергенции, новая Россия и ее новые политические элиты, ворвавшиеся во власть, поставили себя в крайне сложное, невыгодное, двусмысленное и 
незавидное положение. С одной стороны, они претендовали на самостоятельность и величие, обеспечиваемые статусом государства — продолжателя 
СССР3. С другой — не имея собственной правовой 
базы для развития рыночных отношений и функционирования государства и общества в условиях рынка, вынуждены были ее заимствовать у США и Европейского Союза. Тем самым они обрекли себя на 
догоняющее развитие, пороки и недостатки которого столь жестко и обоснованно критиковали классические евразийцы.
Кроме того, они автоматически возвели коллективный Запад в разряд учителей, менторов, наставников, 
более того, проверяющих. Хуже того, дали ему великолепный повод, может быть, даже судьбоносное 
основание увериться во мнении, что он — высшая и 
единственно верная и легитимная форма организации общества. Что он — образец для подражания, на 
который все остальные обязаны равняться4.
Если разобраться, новая Россия и ее новые политические элиты оказали медвежью услугу и коллективному Западу, и себе. Коллективный Запад лишился столь нужной всегда, при любых обстоятельствах, 
конкурентной среды. В результате он стал прини
3   См.: Лукашук И. И. Современное право международных договоров. Т. II: Действие международных договоров. 
М., 2004. С. 324; Попова Ю. Законная наследница: как Россия заняла место СССР в Совбезе ООН // RT на русском. 2016. 
24 дек. URL: https://russian.rt.com/ussr/article/344585-rossiyapravopreemnitsa-sssr.
4   Те из остальных, которые не равняются, соответственно, 
автоматически противопоставляют себя сложившемуся миропорядку и могут обвиняться в «ренегатстве», отступничестве и подрыве основ, что им и инкриминируется западными 
политическими кругами, экспертным сообществом и всеми 
остальными адептами концепции однополярного мира. О несостоятельности такого подхода см.: Entin M., Entina E. Russia 
and China Protecting the Contemporary World Order // Rivista 
di studi politici internazionali, Ottobre-Dicembre 2016, anno 83, 
fasc. 332, pp. 539—552.