History, state, problems and prospects of nuclear science and technology: Critical notes

В.М. МУРОГОВ

HISTORY, STATE, PROBLEMS 
AND PROSPECTS OF NUCLEAR 
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CRITICAL NOTES

Статья

Москва

ИНФРА-М

2019

УДК 621.039
ББК 31.4

М91

Международный центр ядерного образования

Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ» 

(Московский инженерно-физический институт)

Мурогов В.М.

М91
History, state, problems and prospects of nuclear science 

and technology: Critical notes : статья / В.М. Мурогов. — М. : 
ИНФРА-М, 2019. — 18 с.

ISBN 978-5-16-107761-0 (online)

Для научных сотрудников, специалистов, а также всех 

интересующихся вопросами истории и развития ядерной науки.

УДК 621.039

ББК 31.4

ISBN 978-5-16-107761-0 
(online)

© Мурогов В.М., 2019

16+

Introduction

If we analyze the stages of development of nuclear science and technology, which have 

determined the making and the development of nuclear weapons and, then, nuclear power, we 
must return more than 100 years ago, in the early 20th century. Then, the neutron was not yet 
discovered, there was no acceptable theory of the structure of atomic nucleus, and the possibility 
of a chain reaction of nuclear fission was not even discussed, but already in 1912 the outstanding 
Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky made a report at the Russian Academy of 
Sciences concerning the new nuclear forces on the basis of research of radioactive radium. At 
that time there were well-known experiments of the Nobel Prize winners Maria SklodowskaCurie and Pierre Curie. Vladimir Vernadsky understood that the discovered nuclear forces were 
a million time more effective than the then known chemical forces. And, based on this, he 
suggested that humanity entered a new era when there was no restriction of access to energy, and 
all problems of nutrition, health, industrial and social development would be resolved [1].

It was one of the first predictions as concerns the coming of "Golden age" of mankind on 

the basis of scientific and technological revolution. However, later in 1922 he realized, for the 
first time, the tragic drama of this discovery leading not only to a bright future, but also to the 
possibility of destruction of humanity itself (Fig. 1) [2].

In December 1942, the team led by the Italian scientist Nobel Prize winner (physics) 

Enrico Fermi launched the world's first uranium-graphite nuclear reactor (CP-1, Chicago Pile 1) 
on natural uranium. Then this reactor was dismantled and transferred to the Argonne National 
Laboratory (ANL), established in the US, and called CP-2. Two years later, in 1944, the world's 
first heavy-water reactor CP-3 on natural uranium was launched in the ANL. These two types of 
nuclear reactors on natural uranium became the basis for the development of the plutonium 
production industry. At the same time, uranium enrichment technology was successfully 
developed. These two technologies allowed the transition to the making of nuclear weapons [3].

In July 1945, the first nuclear bomb, a plutonium bomb, was exploded in the USA. This 

explosion of Trinity bomb marked the beginning of the nuclear age. The following two nuclear 
bombs (uranium and plutonium) were detonated over Japan.

The successful test of nuclear weapons focused the efforts of scientists, engineers and 
technologists of the Allied countries on the priority state task of survival: the creation of arsenals 
of nuclear weapons and their delivery means.

The development of nuclear energy and the advent of the "Golden Age" of energy well–being 
went to the "shoulder" of state scientific and technological progress.

Figure 1. A fragment of the report made by V.I. Vernadsky at the opening of the Radium 

Institute, 1922. [2]

1. The history of nuclear technology development. Brief analysis

In August 29, 1949 (at 7:00 am, local time), the first Soviet nuclear bomb RDS-1 was 

detonated at the Semipalatinsk test site.

In solving the atomic problem, it was necessary to involve experts from a wide range of 

fields of science and technology: metallurgists, mechanics, chemists, biologists, textile workers 
and glass specialists. The problem was complex, and it could be resolved only by combining the 
maximum number of people most knowledgeable in the field of science and technology. To 
overcome this complex, important problem, all the forces of the country were thrown, and all 
necessary conditions were created. At the same time, the foundation was laid: the infrastructure 
of the nuclear industry, which served as the basis for the country's further nuclear development.

Thus, the task of creating nuclear weapons in the USSR and liquidating the nuclear 

monopoly was, basically, solved. Later, during the "cold war" and as a result of the nuclear arms 
race, more than 1500 nuclear tests were conducted in the world, and totally more than 85,000 
nuclear charges were created in the United States and the USSR.

Simultaneously, in the USA and in the USSR the problem of delivering nuclear weapons 

was being solved. Huge material, technical means and financial resources were spent to create 
more than 500 nuclear submarines with approximately 1,000 nuclear reactors and rockets with 
nuclear charges. The number of states possessing nuclear weapons, the "nuclear powers", began 

We are approaching a great breakthrough in the life of humankind, 

incomparable to any one previously experienced. Not far away is the time when 
a person will acquire atomic energy – a source of power that will enable him to 
build his life the way he wants. It can happen in the coming years, it can happen 
in a century, but it is clear that it should be.

Will a person be able to use this power wisely, to devote himself to good, 

not to self-destruction?

Has he risen to the ability to use power that science would inevitably give 

him?

Scientists should not close their eyes to possible impacts of their research 

work, of scientific progress. They are to feel responsibility for all consequences 
of their discoveries. They should link their activity with the best organization of 
the whole mankind.

Vladimir I. Vernadsky, 1922

to grow: after the United States and the USSR, Great Britain, France and China entered the 
Nuclear Club. There was a danger of proliferation of nuclear weapons.

In 1954, after a long debate, the UN General Conference decided to institute a regime for 

international control over the development and use of nuclear technologies, and to establish the 
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to monitor its implementation.

As a first practical step, it was decided to hold the First Geneva Conference on the 

Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy under the auspices of the United Nations, where it would be 
possible to discuss ways of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. At this conference, a report on the 
world's first nuclear power plant in the USSR, commissioned in 1954 in Obninsk (5 MWe), with 
a uranium-graphite reactor cooled by water on enriched uranium (AM-1) produced a real furor.

Then in 1956, the world's first commercial Calder Hall nuclear power plant (50 MWe) 

with a uranium-graphite reactor on natural uranium cooled by carbon dioxide was commissioned
in Great Britain. The nuclear reactor was of the MAGNOX-type, designed to produce weapongrade plutonium.

In 1957, the world's first water-cooled reactor of the PWR-type (in Russia, the WWER
type reactor) at the Shippingport NPP (70 MWe) was brought into operation in USA. This 
reactor type was earlier developed for nuclear power units of the nuclear submarine fleet. It 
currently forms the basis of modern nuclear power engineering.

A fundamentally important step was the launch in the ANL, by Enrico Fermi’s followers, 

of the world's first fast neutron reactor (without moderator) Clementine (CP-4) with plutonium 
as a fuel in which liquid metal mercury was used for the first time as a cooling liquid [3].

NUCLEAR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND 

CONSTRUCTION PROFILE

Figure 2. Growth of NPP capacity in the world (by regions), and the number of new NPPs

constructed annually [3]

After that, the number of nuclear plants around the world began to grow rapidly (Figure 

2), using the "base" created by weapons atomic projects: the fuel base, the entire industrial 
infrastructure, from uranium mining to nuclear fuel fabrication and its use in the reactor, training, 
knowledge and experience of specialists. Besides, the world's first nuclear power plants of 
various types, which were commissioned, were actually the result of "conversion" of 
developments for military purposes [3].

2. The current state of nuclear energy

By the mid-80s of the 20th century, up to 40 nuclear power units had been built in the 

world, and the NPP total power reached more than 350 GWe. Everything went fine until 1979, 
when the biggest accident in the history of commercial nuclear energy occurred in the United 
States at the Three Mile Island NPP. The accident led to a significant economic crisis in atomic 
power (more than 200 orders for the construction of new nuclear power plants with PWR 
reactors, the most popular nuclear reactor type in the world, were canceled). Then in 1986, there 
was a severe accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which grew into a nuclear 
catastrophe with global social and political consequences. First of all, this was the case with the 
USSR because similar reactors (RBMK reactors) were built only in the USSR. Nevertheless, the 
negative attitude of European countries sharply increased. Seven small countries made a decision 
to ban the development of nuclear power.

Nuclear power entered the 21st century in a state of stagnation. The process of reviewing 

the concept of NPP safety and the further development of a "nuclear safety culture" as one of the 
foundations of atomic energy began.

The statement of the IAEA Director General H. Blix became an evident fact: "A nuclear 

accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere" [3].

In order to overcome the ensuing crisis in the development of nuclear power, in 2000, 

two international projects were launched (Figure 3). The innovative INPRO nuclear power 
project proposed by Russia was developed under the auspices of the IAEA. It brings together the 
efforts of specialists from developed and developing nuclear countries (more than 40 countries).

Figure 3. Basic documents of two major international projects: INPRO and Generation-4 (GIF-4) 

[3]

The purpose of INPRO is to determine the development strategy and requirements for the 

future nuclear power.

The fourth generation project for future nuclear power plants (GIF-4) is aimed at creating 

innovative reactors (Figure 4) that will solve (after 2030) the problems of further development of 
nuclear power: safety, economic efficiency, unlimited development resources, waste and spent 
fuel management, and non-proliferation (Figure 5). Participants in this project, proposed by the 
United States, are only ten countries, most advanced in the nuclear sphere (Russia and China 
joined in 2006).

Figure 4. The list of fourth-generation reactors in accordance with GIF-4 [3]

Unfortunately, due to the most severe nuclear accident in the 21st century, the situation 

was sharply aggravated. It occurred at the Fukushima NPP in 2011 in Japan, one of the most 
industrialized and nuclear-advanced countries in the world.

The nuclear community must find a way out of an arisen contradiction: the nuclear 

technology has not yet led the humankind into a golden age of solving energy problems, but it 
has made it possible to create nuclear weapons potentially capable of destroying humanity.

Recently, despite the construction of about 54 new power units in the world, with the 

annual commission of up to 5-10 nuclear power units, the nuclear power contribution to the 
generation of both electricity (now less than 11%) and to the total energy balance is declining 
(now about 5%). This is not so much due to the decommissioning of obsolete nuclear power 
units, but due to the faster growth of traditional and alternative energy sources .

Figure 5. Requirements and objectives of the 4th generation NPP [3]

3.Conclusion

3.1.Problems of further development of nuclear power in the world

Let us summarize this brief, shallow analysis of the history of the nuclear science and 

technology, and on the other hand, the analysis of the current state of nuclear energy, and the 
problems that complicate its further full-scale development. In this connection, we face a 
paradoxical situation: what Pioneer Founders thought it unquestionable advantages of nuclear 
power, turned into its unresolved problems.

Unlimited fuel resources of nuclear power (declared by the Pioneers) have turned into 

one of the main arguments that do not allow us to consider modern nuclear power to be a stable 
energy source. Actually, NPPs with pressurized-water reactors (88.5%), such as WWER, PWR 
and BWR, constitute the basis of modern atomic energy. They use less than 0.5% of the uranium 
energy potential, which is 2-3 times less than the available oil reserves (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Energy potential of traditional energy sources and nuclear power using uranium-235

[3]

The principal solution of this problem is well known. When developing nuclear power 

plants with breeder reactors, for example fast neutron reactors of BN-type, practically, unlimited 
uranium reserves become available As we know, the first fast neutron reactors cooled by liquid 
metal, were commissioned at the dawn of nuclear power development: in 1946 (ANL, USA) and 
in 1956 (BR-2, FEI, USSR).

More than 70 years of research and development have passed. Currently, in the world 

only two fast reactors, Russian BN-600 and BN-800, are in operation, out of total 450 nuclear 
power units.

They use primarily uranium-235 (as WWER reactors), and are not considered breeders, 

since their nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) is not closed (plutonium reprocessed from spent nuclear fuel 
is not used).

The idea of breeding on the basis of fast reactors and closed NFC, advanced by E. Fermi 

and enthusiastically met by his colleagues in 1944, was put into practice at the beginning of the 
atomic era to increase weapons-grade plutonium production by processing SNF from uraniumgraphite and heavy-water reactors. As a result, the subsequent development of closed NFC 
technology in nuclear power for peaceful purposes was, as in the case of the construction of 
nuclear power plants, the conversion of weapons technology created for producing isotope-pure 
weapons-grade plutonium. This unqualified transfer of military ideas to peaceful energy 
technologies laid the foundations for the risk of "nuclear proliferation."

3.2. Nuclear non-proliferation

The implementation of a closed NFC in modern nuclear power is not just an expensive 

and complex scientific and technical task. Its implementation at the present stage can lead to an 
aggravation of the proliferation problem of hazardous nuclear materials and technologies .