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Уровень жизни населения регионов России, 2014, № 1(191)

научно-практический журнал
Бесплатно
Основная коллекция
Артикул: 468314.0001.99
Уровень жизни населения регионов России : научно-практический журнал. – Москва : ИСЭПН ФНИСЦ РАН, 2014. - № 1(191). – 142 с. – ISSN 1999-9836. - Текст : электронный. - URL: https://znanium.com/catalog/product/460564 (дата обращения: 02.05.2024)
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№1(191)/2014
ISSN 1999-9836

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ 
В РОССИИ 
И СТРАНАХ ЕВРОПЫ

ЭЛЕКТРОННЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ ОАО «ВЦУЖ» 
«НАУКА И СОЦИАЛЬНОЕ КАЧЕСТВО»

ОАО «ВЦУЖ» завершает подготовку к изданию научно-практического рецензируемого журнала «Наука и социальное качество» как междисциплинарного издания научно-теоретической и практической ориентации, направленного на публикацию результатов теоретических 
и прикладных научных исследований, обзоров и анализа практики в социогуманитарной 
сфере с предпочтением социально-экономической, социологической и информационнообразовательной тематики. 
Цель журнала — содействие повышению социального качества Российской Федерации как 
социального государства путем оценки состояния, разработки путей и перспектив развития 
качества жизни населения России и ее регионов и распространения в открытом доступе через Интернет информации о новых научных разработках в социогуманитарной сфере. 

ЗАДАЧИ ЖУРНАЛА — предоставление профессиональной площадки для освещения актуальных проблем в социогуманитарной сфере для их обсуждения научным сообществом 
и практиками; расширение информированности научного сообщества, органов власти и 
управления о состоянии и эффективных направлениях деятельности по дальнейшему росту 
социального качества России и ее регионов; содействие соискателям ученых степеней в оперативных публикациях полученных ими результатов исследований, а также в формировании 
у авторов высокой научной культуры публикаций в соответствии с международными требованиями.

ПЕРСПЕКТИВНАЯ ЦЕЛЬ ЖУРНАЛА — стать одним из ведущих электронных журналов России в социогуманитарной сфере, добиться включения в Перечень ВАК и получить международное признание. Оказывать влияние на принятие органами управления организаций, 
регионов и Российской Федерации в целом эффективных и взвешенных решений в социогуманитарной сфере.
 
ЦЕЛЕВАЯ АУДИТОРИЯ. Журнал ориентирован на широкую аудиторию профессиональных 
ученых, соискателей ученых степеней, преподавателей и аспирантов, специализирующихся 
в социальных и гуманитарных направлениях науки, представителей бизнеса и государственных структур, а также людей, интересующихся научными работами и инновационными разработками в социальной сфере России и мире. 

Приглашаем авторов к активному сотрудничеству. 
Наиболее актуальные и содержательные статьи 
будут опубликованы в журнале «Уровень жизни населения регионов России», 
входящем в Перечень ВАК

Выходит 4 раза в год
Издается с 1992 года
№ 1 
№ 1 (191
191)/2014
2014

НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ
НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ

УЧРЕДИТЕЛЬ:

ОАО «ВСЕРОССИЙСКИЙ ЦЕНТР УРОВНЯ ЖИЗНИ»

Свидетельство о регистрации средства массовой информации 
от 2 декабря 1996 г. № 015476
Перерегистрирован 26 августа 2013 года ПИ NФС77-55146

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

КОЛОНКА ГЛАВНОГО РЕДАКТОРА . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ПО АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОЙ 
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ 
ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО CОЮЗА
Мачхелян Г.Г
О конференции по альтернативной
экономической политике для  Европейского 
cоюза. Лондон 2013 год . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Бобков В.Н., Вередюк О.В.
Социальная уязвимость российского общества 
вследствие высокого неравенства уровня жизни . . . 7

ЕВРОМЕМОРАНДУМ 2014
Углубляющееся разделение в Европе
и необходимость радикальной альтернативы
политике Европейского союза  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ В РЕГИОНАХ
РОССИИ

Бобков В.Н., Гулюгина А.А.
Мониторинг доходов и уровня жизни 
населения россии в IV квартале 2013 года 
(Сокращенный вариант) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ПРОИЗВОДИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ ТРУДА
И ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКИЙ ПОТЕНЦИАЛ

Бобков В.Н.
Рост производительности труда — веление 
времени . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Кардашевский В.В.
Важнейшая задача модернизации экономики 
России — повышение производительности 
труда . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

ЗАРУБЕЖНЫЙ ОПЫТ

Есимжанова С.Р.
Человеческий капитал в Казахстане: 
состояние и структура . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

DOI 10.12737/ISSN.1999-9836

ГЛАВНЫЙ РЕДАКТОР

Бобков В.Н. — д-р экон. наук, проф., засл. деятель науки Российской 
Федерации, ген. директор ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня 
жизни»

ЗАМЕСТИТЕЛИ ГЛАВНОГО РЕДАКТОРА

Волгин Н.А. — д-р экон. наук, проф., засл. деятель науки Российской 
Федерации, первый заместитель ген. директора «Всероссийского 
центра уровня жизни»

Калмыков С.Б. — канд. социол. наук, руководитель Центра подготовки кадров высшей квалификации и дополнительного профессионального образования ОАО «ВЦУЖ»

Маликов Н.С. — канд. филос. наук

РЕДАКЦИОННЫЙ СОВЕТ

Бобков В.Н. — д-р экон. наук, проф., засл. деятель науки Российской Федерации, генеральный директор ОАО «Всероссийский 
центр уровня жизни»

Бурак П.И. — д-р экон. наук, проф., директор Института региональных экономических исследований

Герций Ю.В. — канд. экон. наук, зам. директора Учебного центра 
«Профессионал», Московское государственное образовательное учреждение

Гонтмахер Е.Ш. — д-р экон. наук, проф., зам. директора Института 
мировой экономики и международных отношений РАН

Григорьев С.И. — д-р социол. наук, проф., чл.-кор. РАО, зам. ген. 
директора ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни»

Калашников С.В. — д-р экон. наук, канд. психол. наук, проф., председатель комитета по охране здоровья Государственной думы 
Федерального собрания Российской Федерации

Субетто А.И.  — д-р филос. наук, д-р экон. наук, проф., засл. деятель науки Российской Федерации, вице-президент СанктПетербургского отделения Академии проблем качества, вицепрезидент Петровской академии наук и искусств, президент 
Ноосферной общественной академии наук 

ЗАРУБЕЖНЫЕ ЧЛЕНЫ РЕДАКЦИОННОГО СОВЕТА

Бабосов Е.М. — д-р филос. наук, проф., акад. Национальной академии наук Беларуси, почетный директор Института социологии 
Национальной академии наук Беларуси

Городяненко В.Г. — д-р социол. наук, проф., зав. кафедрой социологии социально-гуманитарного факультета Днепропетровского национального университета им. О. Гончара

Óðîâåíü æèçíè íàñåëåíèÿ
ðåãèîíîâ Ðîññèè

СОЦИАЛЬНЫЕ И ДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКИЕ 
ПРОЦЕССЫ В РЕГИОНАХ

Елизаров В.В.
Демографическое развитие России и ее регионов: 
общее и особенное . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Архангельский В.Н., Джанаева Н.Г.
Региональные особенности динамики 
рождаемости и демографическая политика  . . . . . . 73

Гришина Е.Е.
Совершенствование социальной поддержки 
малоимущих в россии . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

К 150 –ЛЕТИЮ В.И. ВЕРНАДСКОГО

Кузнецов О.Л., Большаков Б.Е.
Ноосферные законы и модель глобального 
устойчивого развития . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Василенко В.Н.
Ноосферный мониторинг безопасности граждан 
россии и глобального общества  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

МОДЕЛИ И МЕТОДИКИ ОЦЕНКИ И ПРОГНОЗА 
УРОВНЯ И КАЧЕСТВА ЖИЗНИ В РЕГИОНЕ

Бобков В.Н.
Модель «Благосостояние» для оценки и прогноза 
качества и уровня жизни населения региона . . . . 104

Евсеев В.О.
Программно-аналитический комплекс оценки 
степени профессионального стресса специалистов 
системы управления . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Васильева Е.В., Куклин А.А., Лыков И.А.
Программа комплексной диагностики 
качества жизни в регионе: функциональные 
характеристики и возможности ее применения . . 118

Захаренков В.В., Горный Б.Э., Мажаров В.Ф., 
Плотников Н.Ю.
Целевое управление территориальной программой 
государственных гарантий оказания гражданам 
бесплатной медицинской помощи . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

ЛИНГВОСТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ ДЛЯ АВТОРОВ 
И ЧИТАТЕЛЕЙ

Мачхелян Г.Г.
О культуре научных публикаций 
и выступлений . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

ПУБЛИКАЦИИ СОИСКАТЕЛЕЙ УЧЕНЫХ 
СТЕПЕНЕЙ

Дубовец Д.С.
О решении вопросов охраны труда социальных 
партнеров с позиций категорий качества,
количества и меры . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Правила по комплектности рукописей
и их оформлению для журнала
«Уровень жизни населения регионов России» . . . 141

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Риччери М. — проф., генеральный секретарь Римского института 
политических, экономических и социальных исследований 

Хепп Р-Д — д-р социол. наук, профессор Свободного Университета 
г. Берлин, ФРГ

Хусаинов Б.Д. — д-р экон. наук, зав. отделом исследований глобализации и региональной интеграции Института экономики Министерства образования и науки Республики Казахстан

ЧЛЕНЫ РЕДАКЦИОННОЙ КОЛЛЕГИИ

Гулюгина А.А. — канд. экон. наук, руководитель Научнообразовательного центра проблем доходов и потребительских 
бюджетов населения ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни»

Евсеев В.О. — д-р экон. наук, руководитель Научно-образовательного 
центра проблем регулирования социально-трудовых отношений 
ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни»

Колбанов В.Ф. — засл. экономист Российской Федерации, директор Департамента комплексного анализа и прогнозирования 
Министерства труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации

Литвинов В.А. — д-р экон. наук, профессор кафедры «Безопасность жизнедеятельности» ГБОУ ВПО «Московский городской 
педагогический университет» 

Мацкуляк И.Д. — д-р экон. наук, проф., зав. кафедрой финансов и 
отраслевой экономики РАНХ и ГС при Президенте Российской 
Федерации

Меньшикова О.И. — д-р экон. наук, проф., гл. научный сотрудник Научно-образовательного центра проблем регулирования 
социально-трудовых отношений ОАО «Всероссийский центр 
уровня жизни»

Павлюченко В.Г.  — д-р экон. наук, проф., зав. кафедрой экономики и финансового права филиала Российского государственного социального университета

Пашин Н.П.  — д-р экон. наук, проф., первый заместитель генерального директора ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни» 

Прокудин В.А. — д-р экон. наук, гл. научный сотрудник Научнообразовательного центра проблем регулирования социальнотрудовых отношений ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни»

Смирнова Н.А. — д-р экон. наук, профессор кафедры государственных и муниципальных финансов финансового университета при Правительстве Российской Федерации

Фролова Е.Б. — канд. экон. наук, начальник Управления статистики уровня жизни и обследований Федеральной службы государственной статистики

При перепечатке ссылка на журнал «Уровень жизни населения регионов России» обязательна.

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Выходит ежеквартально. Подписной индекс 71187

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VOLUME 2
VOLUME 2
ISSUE 1
ISSUE 1
2014
2014

SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL JOURNAL
SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL JOURNAL

ISSN 2309-3633 
DOI 10.12737/issn.2309-3633

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

Bobkov V.N. — Director General of the All-Russian Centre of Living 
Standard PLC, Honoured Science Worker of the Russian Federation, 
Doctor of Economics, Professor.

DEPUTY EDITORS-IN-CHIEF

Volgin N.A. — First Deputy Director General of the All- Russian Centre 
of Living Standard PLC, Doctor of Economics, Professor, Head of 
the Assembly of Experts on Labour and Social Policy.

Kalmykov S.B. — Head of the Centre of Postgraduate and Additional 
Professional Training, PhD in Sociology.

Malikov N.S. — PhD 

EDITORIAL COUNCIL 

Burak P.I. — Director of the Institute of Regional Economic Research, 
Doctor of Economics, Professor.

Gertsiy Yu.V. — Head of the Federal Service for Labour and Employment, 
PhD in Sociology, Professor.

Gontmakher  Ye.Sh. — Deputy Director of the Institute of World 
Economy and International Relations of the RAS, Doctor of 
Economics, Professor.

Grigor'yev S.I. — Deputy Director General of the All-Russian Centre of 
Living Standard PLC, Doctor of Sociology, Professor, Correspondent 
Member of the RAE.

Kalashnikov S.V. — Chief Researcher of the Institute of Sociopolitical 
Studies of the RAS, Doctor of Economics, PhD in Psychology, 
Professor.

Subetto A.I. — President of the Noosphere Public Academy of Sciences, 
Vice President of Petrovskaya Academy of Sciences and Arts, Vice 
President of the St Petersburg Branch of the Academy of Quality 
Problems, Honoured Science Worker of the Russian Federation, 
Dictor of Philosophy, Doctor of Economics, Professor.

FOREIGN MEMBERS OF EDITORIAL COUNCIL

Babosov Ye.M. — Honorary Director of the Institute of Sociology at the 
National Academy of Sciences of Belarus', Member of the National 
Academy of Sciences of Belarus', Doctor of Philosophy, Professor.

Gorodyanenko V.G. — Head of the Chair of Sociology of the SocialHumanitarian Faculty at the Dnepropetrovsk National University 
named after O Gonchar, Doctor of Sociology, Professor, 
Correspondent Member of the RAS.

Ricceri M. — Secretary General of the Roman Institute for Political, 
Economic and Social Studies, Professor.

Hepp R-D. — Doctor of Sociology, Professor, Berlin Free University, 
Germany 

CONTENTS
CONTENTS

CHIEF  EDITOR’S  COLUMN  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

CONFERENCE ON ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC 
POLICY FOR THE EUROPEAN UNION

Machkhelyan H.G.
About  the Conference on Alternative Economic Policy 
for the European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Bobkov V.N., Veredyuk O.V. 
Social Vulnerability as a Result of Inequality 
of Living Standards  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

EUROMEMORANDUM 2014
Deepening division in Europe and the need of a radical 
alternative for the policy of the European Union . . . . . 17

LIVING STANDARDS IN THE REGIONS
IN RUSSIA

Bobkov V.N., Gulyugina A.A. 
Monitoring Incomes and Living Standards of the 
Population of Russia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY AND HUMAN CAPITAL

Bobkov V.N. 
Labour Productivity Growth is the Urgency 
of the Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Kardashevskiy V.V. 
Increasing Labour Productivity is the Most 
Important Task of Modernizing the Economy 
of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

FOREIGN EXPERIENCE

Yessimzhanova S.R.
Human Capital in Kazakhstan: Current Condition 
and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 
IN THE REGIONS

Yelizarov V.V. 
Demographic Development in Russia and Its 
Regions: General and Particular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

FOUNDER:

All-Russian Centre of Living Standard PLC

Registration mass-media license № 015476, December 2, 1996
Reregistered PI No. FS77-55146, August 26, 2013

Level of Life of the Population
of Region of Russia

Khusainov B.D. — Head of the Globalization and Integration Department 
at the Institute of Economics of the Ministry of Education and Science 
of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Doctor of Economics.

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Gulyugina A.A — Head of the Scientific and Educational Centre of the 
Problems of Income and Consumer Budgets of Population (AllRussian Centre of Living Standard PLC), PhD in Economics.

Yevseyev V.O. — Head of the Scientific and Educational Centre of the 
Problems of Regulating Social Labour Relations (All-Russian Centre 
of Living Standard PLC), Doctor of Economics.

Kolbanov V.F. — Director of the Department of Complex Analysis and 
Forecasting at the Ministry of Labour and Social Security of the 
Russian Federation, Honoured Economist of the Russian Federation.

Litvinov V.A. — Professor of the Safety and Vital Activity Chair at the 
Moscow City Pedagogical University, Doctor of Economics.

Matskulyak I.D. — Head of the Chair of Finances and Industry 
Economics at the Russian State Academy of National Economy 
and Public Service under the President of the Russian Federation, 
Doctor of Economics, Professor.

Men'shikova O.I. — Chief Researcher of the Scientific and Educational 
Centre of the Problems of Regulating Social Labour Relations (AllRussian Centre of Living Standard PLC), Doctor of Economics, 
Professor.

Pavlyuchenko V.G. — Head of the Chair of Economics and Financial 
Law at the Russian State Social University Branch, Doctor of 
Economics,Professor.

Pashin N.P. — First Deputy Director General of the Russian Centre of 
Living Standard PLC, Doctor of Economics, Professor.

Prokudin V.A. — Chief Researcher of the Scientific and Educational 
Centre of the Problems of Regulating Social Labour Relations (AllRussian Centre of Living Standard PLC), Doctor of Economics.

Smirnova N.A. — Professor of the Chair of Public and Municipal Finance 
at the Finance University under the Government of the Russian 
Federation, Doctor of Economics.

Frolova Ye.B. — Head of the Department of Living Standards Statistics 
and Survey at the Federal Service of State Statistics, PhD in 
Economics.

Arkhangel’skiy V.N., Dzhanayeva N.G. 
Regional Characteristic of Fertility Dynamics 
and Demographic Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Grishina Ye.Ye 
Improving Social Support of the poor in Russia . . . . . . 83

V I VERNADSKIY: 150TH ANNIVERSARY 
OF BIRTH

Kuznetsov D.L., Bol’shakov  B.Ye. 
Noosphere Laws and Model of the Global 
Sustainable Development  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Vasilenko V.N. 
Noosphere Monitoring of Security of Russian 
Citizens and the Global Society  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

MODELS AND METHODS OF EVALUATING 
AND FORECASTING STANDARDS AND QUALITY 
OF LIVING IN A REGION

Bobkov V.N. 
The «Well-Being» Model for Evaluating and 
Forecasting the Standards and Quality of Living . . . . 104

Yevseyev V.O. 
Software Analytical Complex for Evaluating 
the Professional Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Vasil'yeva Ye.V., Kuklin A.A., Lykov I.A. 
Program of Complex Diagnosing the Quality of Life 
in a Region: Functional Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Zakharenkov V.V., Gornyy B.E., Mazharov V.F., 
Plotnikov N.Yu.
Targetted Managing the Program of the State 
Warranties of Rendering Free Medical Care 
to Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

LINGUISTICS AND REGIONAL CULTURE 
FOR AUTHORS AND READERS

Machkhelyan G.G. 
Some Handy Hints on Standard of Speech in Scientific 
Publications and Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

PUBLICATIONS OF POSTGRADUATES 
AND DOCTORANTS

Dubovets D.S. 
Approaches to Solving the Labour Safety Matters 
оf the Social Partners from the Positions 
of the Categories of Quality, Quantity 
and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Rules for Manuscript and Completeness 
of Their Design for the Journal «Level of Life 
of the Population of Region of Russia» . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

CONTENTS
CONTENTS

While quoting the reference to the journal «Level of Life of the Population 
of Regions of Russia» is required.

The opinion of the Editorial Board may not coincide with the opinion
of the authors of publications.

All received by the editorial materials are subject to review

Issued quarterly. Subscription index 71187

Signed for publication 10.03.2014
Format 60x84/8, circulation 700 copies
Editor office:
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Tel., fax: (499) 164 9761
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УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ 
УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ РОССИИ
РОССИИ • № 1 (191), 2014 • 142 • 5–5

Бобков В.Н.

КОЛОНКА ГЛАВНОГО РЕДАКТОРА 

Уважаемые читатели!

Первый выпуск нашего журнала в новом формате открывают итоги Конференции по альтернативной экономической 
политике в Европейском союзе. Журнал публикует резюме 
состоявшейся осенью прошлого года в Лондоне Конференции и отдельные материалы из ее меморандума. Дополняет 
эти публикации наш доклад на лондонской конференции 
«Социальная уязвимость как результат неравенства в уровне жизни» и наша совместная с доцентом Санкт-Петербургского университета О.В. Вередюк статья, в которой более 
подробно раскрывается эта тема. Доклад, вызвавший у 
участников Конференции большой интерес, и статья публикуются на английском языке. 
В новом формате журнал будет ежеквартально информировать читателя о динамике и тенденциях изменения 
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регионов России. Условия получения полной версии мониторинга можно найти на нашем сайте. В этом выпуске публикуются результаты мониторинга доходов и уровня жизни 
населения регионов России в IV квартале 2013 года.
Наша статья «Рост производительности труда — веление времени» и статья В.В. Кардашевского 
«Важнейшая задача модернизации экономики России — повышение производительности труда» направлены на привлечение большего внимания федеральных и региональных органов власти, ученых 
и практиков к фундаментальной и острой проблеме экономического и социального развития России. 
Этой теме посвящена статья профессора Казахского экономического университета С.Р. Есимжановой 
«Человеческий капитал в Казахстане: состояние и структура».
В рубрике «Социальные и демографические процессы в регионах» опубликована статья известного 
отечественного демографа В.В. Елизарова, руководителя Центра по изучению проблем народонаселения МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова, «Демографическое развитие регионов России: общее и особенное». 
В эту рубрику включена статья сотрудников этого центра В.Н. Архангельского и Н.Г. Джанаевой «Региональные особенности динамики рождаемости и демографическая политика». Актуальные меры по 
сокращению бедности на основе структуризации малообеспеченных социальных групп предложены 
в статье заведующей лабораторией исследования пенсионных систем и актуарного прогнозирования 
социальной сферы Института социального анализа и прогнозирования РАНХиГС Е.Е. Гришиной «Совершенствование социальной поддержки малоимущих в России».
Памяти основателя учения о ноосфере В.И. Вернадского, 150-летие которого широко отмечалось 
во всем мире в 2013 году, посвящены статьи, включенные в специальную рубрику.
В рубрике «Модели и методики оценки и прогноза уровня и качества жизни в регионе» опубликованы в помощь специалистам социальной сферы разработки ученых ВЦУЖ, Урала и Сибири.
Новая рубрика «Лингвострановедение для авторов и читателей» содержит статью редактора по 
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В журнале публикуются обновленная реклама дополнительного образования, правила оформления 
статей в соответствии с требованиями международной базы научных публикаций СКОПУС, а также 
информация о создании в ОАО «ВЦУЖ» электронного журнала «Наука и социальное качество». 

Главный редактор, 
заслуженный деятель науки Российской Федерации,
 доктор экономических наук, 
профессор В.Н. Бобков

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ 
УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ РОССИИ
РОССИИ • № 1 (191), 2014 • 142 • 6–6

 КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ПО АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОЙ 
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА

О Конференции по альтернативной 
экономической политике для  Европейского 
cоюза. Лондон 2013 год

About  the Conference on Alternative Economic Policy 
for the European Union

Получено 15.01.2014 
Одобрено 27.01.2014 
Опубликовано 17.03.2014
УДК 332 

МАЧХЕЛЯН Г.Г.
канд. экон. наук, доц., редактор по международной информации, 
ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня жизни».
Россия, 105043, Москва, 4-я Парковая ул., д. 29. 
E-mail: garry_machkhelyan@mail.ru

MACHKHELYAN H.G.
PhD in Economics, Associate Professor, International Information 
Editor, All-Russian Centre of Living Standard PLC.
29 4-th Parkovaya Street, Moscow, 105043, Russia. 
E-mail: garry_machkhelyan@mail.ru

В Лондоне 20–22 сентября 2013 г. состоялась 
XIX Конференция по вопросам альтернативной 
экономической политики, которую организовала 
ЕвроМемоГруппа. Группа объединяет экономистов 
Европы, занимающихся критическим анализом 
текущей экономической политики Евросоюза и 
разработкой общих основ альтернативной политики ЕС в области экономики. Итоговым документом работы конференции стал Евромеморандум 2014 «Углубляющееся разделение в Европе и 
необходимость радикальной альтернативы политике Европейского союза».
На Конференции были рассмотрены вопросы 
экономического и политического положения Евросоюза и экономического кризиса. В первый день 
работы Конференции ее участники ознакомились 
с документами о состоянии политики и экономики в странах ЕС: Политическое положение ЕС; 
Экономическое положение ЕС; Экономический 
кризис и равноправие мужчины и женщины в 
Европе. Обсуждение этих документов и ключевых 
проблемы политики ЕС состоялось в рабочих 
группах: Экономическая и финансовая политика 
(Economic and Financial Policy); Система управления и демократия в ЕС (Governance and Democracy 
in the EU); Налоговая политика, бедность и нера
венство (Tax Policy, Poverty & Inequality); Индустриальная политика и социально-экономические 
преобразования (Industrial Policy and Social-Economic 
Transformation); Соглашение о свободной торговле ЕС и США и международные отношения ЕС 
(Th e EU–US Free Trade Agreement and EU External 
Relations).
Заключительный день работы Конференции 
был посвящен обсуждению и принятию Евромеморандума 2014, который подготовлен на основе 
материалов дискуссий, докладов и документов, 
представленных участниками Конференции.
Внутренние и международные аспекты социально-экономического неравенства, уровня жизни 
населения в России в период трансформаций 
1990–2000-х годов были детально представлены 
участникам Конференции в докладе генерального директора ОАО «Всероссийский центр уровня 
жизни», д-ра экон. наук, профессора МГУ им. М.В. Ломоносова, заслуженного деятеля науки РФ В.Н. Бобкова (Москва) и канд. экон. наук, доцента СПбГУ 
О.В. Вередюк (Санкт-Петербург) «Социальная 
уязвимость российского общества вследствие 
высокого неравенства уровня жизни». (Доклад и 
подготовленная на его основе статья опубликованы в данном номере журнала.)

 КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ПО АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОЙ 
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ 
УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ РОССИИ
РОССИИ • № 1 (191), 2014 • 142 • 7–16

Бобков В.Н.

Социальная уязвимость российского общества 
вследствие высокого неравенства уровня жизни

Social Vulnerability of the Russian Society as a Result 
of High Inequality of Living Standards1

Получено 20.02.2014 
Одобрено 25.02.2014 
Опубликовано 17.03.2014
УДК 330.59 
DOI: 10.12737/3480

БОБКОВ В.Н.
д-р экон. наук, проф., заслуженный деятель науки Российской 
Федерации, генеральный директор ОАО «ВЦУЖ».
105043, Москва, 4-я Парковая улица, д. 29. 
Е-mail: info@vcug.ru

ВЕРЕДЮК О.В.
канд. экон. наук, доцент экономического факультета СанктПетербурского государственного университета.
191123, г. Санкт-Петербург, ул. Чайковского, д. 62. 
E-mail: o.veredyuk@econ.pu.ru

Аннотация
Рассматриваются внутренние и международные аспекты социально-экономического неравенства в уровне жизни в России в период 
капиталистической трасформации с 1990 по 2000 г. Анализируются следующие показатели неравенства: доходы (использованные на 
потребление), обеспеченность жилищем, доступности услуг образования и здравоохранения. Приводятся сравнение России с другими 
странами G20. Выявлены причины высокого социально-экономического неравенства в России. Представлены концептуальные подходы по сокращению социально-экономического неравенства. 

Ключевые слова: Индекс Джини, нормативные потребительские 
бюджеты, социально-экономическое неравенство, социальная структура, G20, БРИКС.

BOBKOV V.N. 
Doctor of Economics, Professor, Honoured Science Worker of the 
Russian Federation, Director General of the All-Russian Centre of 
Living Standard PLC. All-Russian Centre of Living Standard PLC.
29 4-th Parkovaya Street, Moscow, 105043, Russian Federation. 
Е-mail: info@vcug.ru

VEREDYUK O.V.
Ph.D. in Economics, Associate Professor of the Economical Department, 
St. Petersburg State University.
62 Chaikovskiy st., St. Petersburg, 191123, Russia. 
E-mail: o.veredyuk@econ.pu.ru

Abstract
The domestic and international aspects of the socioeconomic inequality in 
living standards in Russia during the capitalist transformation from 1990 
to 2000 are considered. The following indicators of inequality are analyzed: 
by income spent on consumption, by housing provision, by access to 
education and healthcare. A comparison of Russia with other countries of 
the G20 is made. The reasons for high socioeconomic inequality in Russia 
are revealed.
The reachability of parameters of the social structure of the Russian society 
represented in the Forecast of Long-Term Socioeconomic Development of 
the Russian Federation for the Period up to  the Year 2030 is considered. 
The conceptual approaches to reducing socioeconomic inequalities are 
represented.

Keywords: The Gini index, normative consumer budgets, Russia, 
socioeconomic inequality, social structure, G20, BRICS.

1 
The time frame is from the end of the Soviet period and the 
20th anniversary of capitalist transformations in Russia, as well 
as the expected period till 2030.

Research Methodology

Inequality will be considered as a diff erentiation 
of population by living conditions, level and structure 
of consumption, opportunities to realize individual 
abilities. Inequality leads to a deprivation of individual 
rights for dignity and respect.
Socioeconomic inequality manifests itself in 
consumption inequality, i.e. in inequality in living 
standards. According to this criterion the following 
basic forms of social inequality are usually distinguished 
by: 1) current consumption of material goods and 
services, 2) housing provision, 3) access to education, 
4) access to healthcare, etc.[1]

It seems reasonable to assess the diff erentiation in 
consumption not by separate products but by complex 
standards of current consumption. The latter are 
represented by normative consumer budgets of diff erent 
income levels. We have applied the following consumer 
budgets: 1) the offi  cial subsistence minimum (SM), 
2) the socially acceptable consumer budget, 3) the 
budget of middle income, and 4) the budget of high 
income12 [2]. Th ey correspond with each other by size 
approximately as 1: 3: 7: 11.
A comparison of the actual consumption of the 
population with these social standards lets us distinguish 
the following social groups which differ by living 
standard: those most in need (less than 1 SM); low 

2 
Standards 2, 3 and 4 have been developed and verified at the 
All-Russian Centre of Living Standard, Moscow.

2 

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ 
УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ РОССИИ
РОССИИ • № 1 (191), 2014 • 142 • 7–16

 КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ПО АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОЙ 
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА

income (1–3 SM); income less than average (3–7 SM); 
middle income (7–11 SM), high income (over 11 SM).
Another group that characterizes the living standard 
includes standards of housing provision also designed 
by experts of Th e All-Russian Centre of Living Standard: 
the lowest — 7 sq m, socially acceptable — 18 sq m, 
average — 30 sq m, and high — 60 and more sq m 
per person. In addition, these standards include housing 
quality characteristics which become better as we 
move from lower to higher housing provision [3].
Characteristics of the social inequality caused by 
diff erent availability (consumption) of education and 
healthcare are determined by payment limitations.

The Results of the Comparative Analysis 
of Population Distribution by Living 
Standards

Population distribution by income used for 
consumption. Income used for consumption describes 
living standards more accurately than real monetary 
income. A comparative analysis of current consumption 
in diff erent social groups (taking into account changes 
over the years of capitalist transformation) shows the 
following results3.
In 1990, because of the substantial additions to 
real consumer spending from public consumption 
funds there were hardly any representatives of the 
segment of people most in need in Russia, although 
the living standard of the majority was not high. 
About 30 per cent of Russians were concentrated in 
households with low income. Also, approximately 2/3 
of the population had income less than average. Th e 
groups with middle and high income reached 7 per 
cent of the population.
After twenty years the structure of the society 
based on consumption level has changed dramatically. 
Th e segment of people most in need grew about fi ft y 
times and reached 11.2 per cent. Th e share of households 
with low income increased 1.8 times and reached 
58 per cent. Currently, the two lowest groups by income 
level account for almost three quarters of the population. 
Th e group with middle income reduced 3.4 times and 
now equals 3 per cent of the population. Th e share 
of the high income group remains low (about one per 
cent).
Th e diff erentiation of the population by income 
used for consumption has grown (by a rate of funds) 
from 4.6 to 13.2 (2.9 times), and by the Gini index — 
from 0.227 to 0.398 (1.8 times).
Again, the situation of the socioeconomic inequality in terms of current consumption of diff erent groups 

3 
Estimations are made by the experts of the All-Russian Centre 
of Living Standard and are based on: [4, p. 31; 5, p. 9, 80; 6, 
p. 126; 7, p. 27, 134; 8, p.21].

of population can be estimated by a coeffi  cient of the 
ratio of average income spent on consumption, in 
groups with consumption above 11 CB4 and below 1 
CB (the Bvn coeffi  cient). Th e Bvn coeffi  cient was 14.4 
in 1990 and 20.8 in 20115. In a capitalist economy 
where there is a big segment of people most in need 
and a huge gap between the consumption of this group 
and the group with high income (even with its small 
share in the society) the Bvn coeffi  cient can most 
accurately characterize the socioeconomic inequality 
between these groups of the society.
Th e fi rst stage in the formation of Russian capitalism (from 1992 to 2000) led to a sharp economic 
downturn, the enrichment of a narrow layer of large 
private property owners, the impoverishment of the 
majority of the population and to a sharp social stratifi cation.
In the second stage of capitalist transformation 
(from 2000 up to now) as a result of economic growth 
during the period of 2000–2008 and 2011–2012, the 
share of the group with income below the substantial 
minimum decreased signifi cantly, standard of living 
increased in all segments of the population. Still the 
inequality continued to rise. Th us, the rapid growth 
of social inequality is one of the most distinctive 
features of Russian capitalism from the yearly 1990s 
to the late Noughties6.
Grouping of the population by housing provision. 
Housing inequality during the years of capitalist reforms 
has multiplied. At the beginning of the capitalist 
transformation near 80 per cent of the population in 
Russia had modest living conditions: from 7 to 30 sq 
m per person. Over the reviewed period this segment 
of the population has “shrunk” by about 20 percentage 
points. A 3.2 times reduction in housing poverty was 
accompanied by a 17.5 times increase of the group 
with high housing provision7.
Investments in housing became one of the ways 
of capital accumulation for the rich Russians. For the 
poor Russians it was only a statistical improvement 
caused by a reduction of the total population (from 
148.3 to 143.0 million) during this period. Due to 
this factor, there was a statistical paradox — in a 
number of regions and cities that lost their production 
capacities, housing provision increased signifi cantly 
with almost no construction of new dwellings.

4 
CB is an abbreviation for consumer basket of subsistence 
minimum.
5 
Estimations are made by the experts of the All-Russian Centre 
of Living Standard based on [4, 5, 6].
6 
President Vladimir Putin considered this issue as 
«unacceptable, causing too high income inequality... excessive 
gap is perceived as an injustice and a source of social tension» 
[9]. Годы с 2001 до 2010 включительно называются нулевыми (англ.: the Noughties) (прим. ред.)
7 
Estimations are made by the experts of the All-Russian Centre 
of Living Standard and are based on: [10].

УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ 
УРОВЕНЬ ЖИЗНИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕГИОНОВ РОССИИ
РОССИИ • № 1 (191), 2014 • 142 • 7–16

Бобков В.Н., Вередюк О.В.

During the years of reforms social guarantees of 
getting habitation from the state for free (typical of 
the Soviet Union) were completely destroyed8. It cost 
almost nothing for the state to let free privatization 
of habitation, but now the costs of its maintenance 
and repair have been passed on to the impoverished 
majority. As a result, dwelling and utility bills have 
soared. Transparent market rent relations in the housing 
sector have neither been established, mortgage crediting 
remains unaff ordable for those who are most in need 
of housing, and buying a home is not oft en provided 
by adequate income of the group in need.
Inequality in access to education and healthcare is 
the result of underfunding and superiority of market 
principles (despite these spheres being public). In 
1990, education on all levels was free, but in 2010 
near 40 per cent of young people getting education 
(from general secondary to higher) in full or partially 
paid for their education. Th e brightest example is 
higher professional education. Here, in institutions 
of higher education, the corresponding fi gure was 62 
per cent [11, p. 307, 310]. Polls of those who wish to 
get higher professional education indicate that up to 
80 per cent of parents are ready to pay in full or 
partially for education of their children [12, p. 84].
From 1991 to 2008, the sickness rate among children 
under the age of fourteen increased 1.5 times, and 
adolescent children (15–17 years) – twice. Th e growth 
of this indicator is partly explained by the improved 
diagnosis, but mostly, according to experts, by real 
deterioration of health Th e actual rate of sickness 
among children and adolescents is 1.5-2 times higher 
than the offi  cial statistics. [13]. Unequal opportunities 
to get healthcare are one of the main reasons for the 
reduced fertility, increased rate of sickness and population 
decline. For 18 years (from 1992 to 2010) the diff erence 
between the number of births and deaths in Russia 
equalled more than 13.1 million people. In case current 
trends in the population reproduction continue it can 
lead to a reduction of the country’s population by the 
beginning of 2030 to 130–135 million people [14, 
p. 106–113].

Inequality in Russia in the International 
Context

Th e rapid growth of economic inequality in Russia 
from 1990 to 2000s could easily be compared with 
the trends in other economies at that time as well as 
allows to identify better the general and the particular 
of Russian capitalism. Th e comparison was made with 

8 
Formally, the right to social rented habitation was proclaimed, 
but in fact its construction has not been launched.

countries of the Group of Twenty (G20)9. Where 
possible and appropriate, additional emphasis is placed 
on the BRICS’ member countries10, which, on the 
one hand, are a part of the G20 and, on the other 
hand, represent the fastest-growing world economies.
International comparisons of socioeconomic 
inequality are usually based on money income using 
the Gini index11 and an indicator of relative poverty.
Th e Gini index. As the analysis shows [5,15,16,27] 
economic inequality by income during the period 
from the early 1990s to the late Noughties increased 
in 14 out of 18 countries (excluding the EU and Saudi 
Arabia from the list), members of the G20, including 
the BRICS countries (except Brazil where this indicator 
decreased).
In Russia, the growth of economic inequality was 
explosive during 1990–1993 (from 0.26 to 0.40) and 
then matched the average rate for the G20. In the late 
Noughties the level of inequality in Russia coincided 
with a median value of the Gini index for the BRICS 
group, i.e. in two countries (India and China) the 
inequality was lower, and in the other two (South 
Africa and Brazil) — higher than in Russia.
Overall, the analysis of the dynamics of the Gini 
index showed that from the early 1990s to the late 
Noughties there was the highest growth of inequality 
in Russia compared to the G20 and the BRICS countries. 
Th is period is characterized by the transition from a 
planned economy with low inequality to a capitalist 
economy with high inequality based on non-economic 
allocation of resources in the 1990s, an oligarchic 
model of capitalism, and a weak power of state in the 
Noughties. Th e overall growth of economic inequality 
in the G20 and the BRICS and that in Russia are 
quantitatively and qualitatively diff erent12.
For a comparative analysis of the size of inequality 
it is not enough to operate the Gini index only. According 

9 
The G20 includes: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, 
China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, The 
Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South 
Africa, Turkey, The United Kingdom, The United States of 
America and The European Union.
10 BRICS’ member states are Brazil, Russia, India, China, South 
Africa.
11 The Gini index (or the Gini coefficient) reflects the dispersion 
of income in the range from zero (full equality of distribution) 
to one (maximum inequality). There are differences in 
statistical approaches of measurement inequality in different 
countries (in one case, the indicators can be calculated on the 
basis of data on household income, in other cases — on their 
spending). Hence indicators are not always fully comparable. 
As a rule, inequality by income is higher than inequality by 
spending.
12 The authors did not give special consideration to the level and 
dynamics of economic inequality in China. Although, in 
special studies on China, as well as on Russia, it is 
recommended to distinguish two periods of economy 
development: within the world socialist system and after its 
collapse.

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 КОНФЕРЕНЦИЯ ПО АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОЙ 
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА

to a common approach the height of inequality in a 
country should be assessed by comparison of the 
national Gini index and the size of per capita gross 
domestic product (GDP) in purchasing power parity 
(PPP). Th us, the eff ects of economy size and structures, 
as well as resources to provide living standards on 
the economic inequality are considered.
To the late Noughties13 the level of economic 
inequality by the Gini index in Russia was about 1.4 
times higher than in Germany (the most prosperous 
of the G20 by this indicator) and was comparable 
with the level of inequality in the USA. At the same 
time, GDP per capita (in PPP terms) in Russia was 
about 3 times lower than in Germany and 3.5 times 
lower than in the USA.
Russia was a leader in growth rate of income 
inequality among the G20 countries with uppermiddle-income over the period from early 1990s to 
2010 (second aft er China).
When comparing the level of economic inequality 
it is important to keep in mind the structure of the 
economy. A high proportion of raw materials (especially 
oil) in the structure of exports of the G20, along with 
Russia, is also typical for Canada, the UK, Saudi Arabia, 
Argentina, Mexico, Indonesia and India14. From this 
perspective inequality in Russia is consistently one 
of the highest (it is worse only in Argentina and Mexico).
Th us, the international comparison shows: a) the 
explosive growth of inequality at the beginning of 
capitalist reforms (from 1990 to 1993); b) one of the 
highest growth rates of inequality among the G20 
countries with upper-middle-income from the early 
1990 to the late Noughties; and c) one of the highest 
levels of inequality among countries with similar 
structures of exports. Th ese are the characteristics of 
Russian capitalism and they demonstrate economic 
inequality as the most acute problem for Russia.
Relative monetary poverty by income. Th e economic 
ground for this approach in terms of the distribution of 
the population by living standards lies in the fact that 
the poor are those households and individuals whose 
living standards diff er signifi cantly from most widespread 
consumption standards in the country. Th is approach 
is based on the linking of physiological and sociocultural 
standards and norms of social life (access to education, 
information, communication, etc.).
Th e defi nition of relative poverty is directly related 
to the task of reducing the level of socioeconomic 
inequality in income distribution, with overcoming 
of serious deviations in living standards prevailing in 
a country and limitations in the choice of life opportunities 
(deprivation).

13  Composed by the authors based on: [15, 17–19].
14  According to [18, 20].

Russian offi  cial statistics does not measure monetary 
income poverty. Estimations made by the Russian 
researchers are based on OECD methodology show 
that in 2009 this indicator was 19.3 per cent in Russia. 
At the same time in such G20 countries as Germany 
(15.5 per cent), the UK (17.3), France (12.9) and Italy 
(18.4) the relative poverty was lower15.

Reasons for Social Inequality in Russia: 
Economic Aspect

Th e main reason for social inequality in Russia 
are: 1) inequality in income from employment, 2) low 
effi  ciency of income tax on individuals and 3) inadequate 
public spending on social protection. Th ey are discussed 
below.
The calculations of inequality in income from 
employment show the following16. Th e share of the 
lowest paid wage earners with income below the 
subsistence minimum budget of working age population 
rose from 3.1 to 14.1 per cent, i.e. more than four 
times.
The share of medium-paid workers increased 
approximately twice. But their share is very low (near 
5 per cent), while the number is about three times 
less than that of workers with the lowest wages.
Th e share of highly paid employees has increased 
12.5 times. However, their representation is very low 
(near 3 per cent of the employees), including primarily 
engaged in mineral — fuel and energy sectors, as well 
as in the fi nancial sector.
Th e rest of the employees belong to the layers of 
low and lower-middle-paid (about 70%).
As a consequence of the changes there has been 
twofold increase in inequality in the distribution of 
workers by wage. In 1990, the index of funds for this 
indicator was 7.8, while in 2010 — 14.4 times. Th e 
Gini index (wages concentration index) increased 
from 0.371 to 0.413.
Ineffi  cient taxation of personal income. Since 2001, 
Russia has moved to a fl at tax rate on personal income. 
It is one of the world’s lowest rates income tax on 
individuals, regardless of the income size. When it 
was introduced, there were arguments about the 
expected expansion of the tax base due to pulling 
monetary income of the rich into the “light”, and as 
a consequence, an increase of state income.

15  For the given foreign countries Eurostat data were used 
(http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/
eurostat/home), date of extraction: 14 Feb 2011; for Russia – 
estimations of the relative risk of poverty were done by 
L.N. Ovcharova based on [10].
16 Estimations are made by the expert of the All-Russian Centre 
of Living Standard and are based on: [4, p. 31; 23, p. 111; 6, p. 
128].

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Бобков В.Н., Вередюк О.В.

As it turned out, these arguments did not stand 
the test of practice. Th ere was an absolute increase in 
the amount of tax, but not as a result of flat rate 
introduction. It was due to the expansion of the group 
of tax payers (the military, the police, etc.) during 
that period. As for the impact of a fl at rate on the 
legalization of “black” income, it still does not work. 
Th ose who did not pay at rate of 60 per cent in 1992, 
35 per cent in 1997–1998, 20–30 per cent in 1999–2000, 
do not pay in full at the rate of 13 per cent. Meanwhile, 
in other countries, citizens pay in full and at a higher 
(up to 70 per cent) rates.
In addition, progressive taxation is aimed at: overcoming 
the huge gap between wealth in private and poverty 
in public sectors; increasing the accumulation of funds 
to finance vital public services (construction and 
maintenance of roads, schools, low-cost housing, etc.).
Th e answer to a question about the true reasons 
for the introduction of the current system of personal 
income tax is that the Russian state chose the interests 
of a relatively small social group that had a power to 
infl uence the politics, economy and fi nances of the 
country, instead the interests of the majority and the 
country as a whole.
Almost all developed countries have set a minimum 
tax-free income that is below normal costs of reproduction 
of labour force for the country (for the USA and 
Western Europe it is in the range of 5–6 thousand 
dollars a year). At this level of income the employee 
may not only be free from income tax but get a wide 
range of social benefi ts [21, p. 67].
Th us, it is necessary to recognize the need to change 
the distribution mechanisms and to establish the tax 
burden depending on the size of income.
Inadequate public spending on social protection. 
Social protection is one of the sources of income 
increase in the low income groups and of reduction 
of social inequality. Despite the legal framework, and 
numerous measures of social support, the level of 
social benefi ts remains low and does not allow to raise 
the income of the population in need up to the offi  cial 
poverty level. Th e lack of funds is extremely high in 
vulnerable families with children. Th is is largely due 
to inadequate government spending on social support 
in Russia, which lags far behind the level of it in the 
most developed countries in the G20. For example, 
in 2010 the spending for social support was in the 
UK — 28 per cent, Germany — 31 per cent, Italy — 
30 per cent, France — 34 per cent of GDP. In Russia 
it was more than twice lower — at the level of 12.8 
per cent of GDP in 2010 and in 2011 — 11.9 per cent 
[22, 23]. Such under-funding of social protection 
sphere, along with non-target nature of the funds 
spending are among the reasons for the high levels 
of social inequality in Russia.

Forecast Evaluation of Socioeconomic 
Inequality

Th e Government has introduced “Forecast of LongTerm Socioeconomic Development of the Russian 
Federation for the Period till the Year 2030” (Th e 
Forecast) [24], i.e. for the next 20 years. Th is is the 
time range equal to that passed by Russia from 1992 
to 2012.
Analyzing the Forecast methodology, especially 
the parameters of the social structure17 which determine 
the dynamics of social inequality and its level by 2030, 
shows the following.
1. Th e Forecast is not based on a reasonable set of 
social living standards;
2. Th e problem of high social inequality is refl ected 
only indirectly without any justifi cation and quantitative 
assessments.
It follows that the Forecast may not cause trust. 
Th e planned increase in GDP may even lead to the 
aggravation of inequality. In current Russian conditions 
attempts to meet the challenges of economic growth 
and at the same time to eradicate poverty will not be 
successful unless measures to reduce social and economic 
inequality are developed and implemented.
All these make proclaimed possibilities of reducing 
(and especially signifi cant) socioeconomic inequality 
rather problematic to achieve.
Th e share of the middle class (48 per cent) outlined 
in the Forecast, may be too high compared to its 
possible weight according to our forecast (13.8 per 
cent). Even aft er being added together, medium and 
upper class social groups may amount to less than 30 
per cent of the population in Russia in 2030.
As for the economic inequality, the Gini coeffi  cient, 
according to our forecast, could reach 0,470 in 2030, 
and the decile coeffi  cient of funds — 23.3 versus 0.427 
and 16.4 in 2012. Th e growth of economic inequality 
will be 1.1 and 1.4 times respectively. Th e ratio of 
average income of the population groups with income 
above 11 SM and income lower 1 SM (the Bvn coeffi  cient) 
could grow from 21.6 times in 2012 to 28.5 times in 
2030, i.e. 1.3 times. All this characterizes the possible 
diff erent, opposite to the conclusions of the Forecast’s 
dynamics of the socioeconomic inequality.
Th us, the Forecast is possibly based on the previous 
twenty years trend of increasing socioeconomic 
inequality, i.e. continuation of reforms in the interests 
of the oligarchic groups.

17 In this case, the term «social structure» is considered only in 
the aspect that is presented in the Forecast, i.e. through the 
ratio of the poor, the middle and the other social strata by 
income. The authors understand that there are alternative 
approaches for identifying social structures.

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ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ ПОЛИТИКЕ ДЛЯ  ЕВРОПЕЙСКОГО СОЮЗА

Conceptual Approaches to Reducing 
Social Inequality

Th e growing socioeconomic inequality in Russia 
undermines the ability of a large part of the population 
to be “embedded” in economic growth, limits their 
access to its results and is the main cause of social 
vulnerability of the major part of the Russian society.
Th is implies the need for an alternative socioeconomic 
development Strategy of Russia, aimed at achieving 
signifi cant results in improving the living standards 
[25, p. 61–73]. Th ere should be comprehensive measures 
in all major areas of formation of the level and quality 
of life, based on the need for targeted policy development, 
aimed at decreasing the gap between the rich and the 
poor groups of the population.
Th e priority is the establishment of progressive 
taxation of personal income. Income tax is advisable 
to charge by place of residence in coordination with 
the budgets of households. In addition to this tax the 
equitable distribution of personal income includes 
the introduction of taxes on inheritance and gift  tax. 
Along with taxes on individuals it is necessary to 

introduce progressive taxation of capital gains and 
agricultural land.
At the same time, it is necessary to create an eff ective 
system of targeted support of the vulnerable groups, 
and, above all, families with children, the provision 
of social services for the elderly and disabled people 
who are in diffi  cult situations.
Th e biggest social groups in Russia are not the 
poor but the low- and lower middle households with 
employees as their members. Such groups need not 
only the state social guarantees, but also the conditions 
for the realization of their potential and transition to 
the middle class on the basis of eff ective employment.
Th e middle and upper classes can be signifi cantly 
larger by the establishment of highly productive jobs 
for those with secondary and, especially, with higher 
education, improvement the quality and development 
of the material and moral incentives to work. An 
important role should be given to small, medium and 
large businesses which provide the country with 
competitive workplaces.
Meeting all these challenges will facilitate the 
reduction of socioeconomic inequality and the eff ective 
use of the human potential in Russia.

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